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The Carolingian sword is a type of edged weapon that was common in Europe from the 7th to the 10th century. It is also known as the sword of the Vikings, although it was widely used by other warriors of the early Middle Ages. The peak of popularity of this weapon falls on the 13th century, when it finally took shape, standing out as a separate type, which was considered the most effective at that time. More details about the history of the "Carolingians", their characteristics and varieties, as well as artifacts confirming their existence, will be discussed below.

So, the progenitor of the Viking sword is spatha, and its descendant is the well-known knightly sword. The double-edged spatha was invented by the Celts before our era, but gradually it became the main type of weapon, both among the Scandinavians and the Romans, spreading over several centuries throughout Europe. It was replaced by a sword of the Carolingian type. The Viking Age made a number of changes to the design of the once short blade: it became longer, thicker and heavier than its predecessors dating back to the era of migration of peoples.

By the 10th century, "Carolingians" began to be used almost everywhere by the warriors of the states of Northern and Western Europe. The very term "Carolingian" ("Carolingian", "sword of the Carolingian type") appeared much later - at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. It was introduced by gunsmiths and arms collectors in honor of the Carolingian dynasty that ruled over the Frankish empire.

By the period of the Late Middle Ages, the Viking sword gradually transformed into a knightly weapon - the Romanesque sword.

Three main systematics of the "Carolingians"

Interestingly, from 750 to 1100. The design of the Carolingian sword remained practically unchanged. Only the shape of the handles has been improved. It was this that historians took as a basis, creating classification systems for Viking blades (by the way, many of them are very different from each other). So, at the beginning of the 20th century, Jan Petersen identified 26 types of handles, and Dr. R. Wheeler identified 7 main categories. Half a century later, Ewart Oakeshott added 2 more categories, demonstrating the transition from the Viking sword to the knight's sword.

At the end of the 20th century, Alfred Geibig developed the most advanced classification of Viking blades, which includes 13 types. The first of them shows the transition from spatha to the sword of the Vikings, and the penultimate and last - to the knight's sword. People who are most interested in Carolingian type swords highly appreciated this taxonomy. And for knightly swords, the Oakeshott classification is still the best.

More about Viking swords

Our contemporaries can judge the appearance and functional characteristics of the weapons of the Viking Age not only from handwritten sources and drawings. Many artifacts have been found on the territory of Christian Europe; single specimens came across to archaeologists in the Muslim Volga Bulgaria and even in the Kama region. In the latter case, the length of the found sword was as much as 120 cm!

But, judging by the density of the finds, the medieval Scandinavians fell in love with the Carolingians most of all. The weapons of the northern peoples were practically no different from the blades of the population of the rest of Europe. So, Danish and Norwegian Viking swords are identical to the defensive weapons of the Franks, British, etc. This is a typical weapon of the Middle Ages, which was considered universal for both foot soldiers and horsemen.

"Carolingian" is characterized by the following features:

• the length of the double-edged blade is about 90 cm;
• total weight of the product - 1 - 1.5 kg;
• the presence on the blade of a deep extended valley (a notch cut from both sides), the function of which is to lighten the total mass of the sword and to give the blade strength (having acquired the ability to bend, the blade did not break);
• a short handle with a minimum size guard (cross) and a massive pommel (apple, knob).

The top is an important detail

One legend tells about the origin of the voluminous knob. Initially, the swords had an ordinary hilt, to which the warriors attached a small box with spells to help them during battles. Confirmation of this fact can be found in another legend - "About Skofnung" (the sword of Hrolf Kraka). The box protected the spell from mechanical damage, from burnout, getting wet, and from prying eyes. Over time, the box "grown" to the handle, becoming its full-fledged pommel.

How were Viking swords decorated?

Initially, Viking weapons were decorated with mosaics and inlaid with precious stones, but over time, the invaders abandoned expensive decor, since they considered their functionality to be the main characteristic in these tools. Sometimes there were inserts made of precious metals. But few people could refuse such an ornament as the original pommel, so the variety of varieties of this part of the sword amazes our contemporaries.

Many fans of the Vikings series were interested in the inscription on the Carolingian sword shown at the end of the film: some could not read it completely, while others were interested in the meaning of the word written in Latin. The crosspiece of a double-edged sword dating back to the Viking Age is decorated with the word "Ananyzapata" (Anananizapata), which is translated into Russian as "inquisitor". Perhaps the presence of such an inscription indicates that sometimes the design of the blade indicated the status of the owner of the weapon, as well as the role assigned to him by the leader.

About Viking single-edged swords

Not all Carolingians were double-edged. Sometimes the Vikings and their contemporaries also used single-edged products. They still had nothing to do with later sabers, since the blades of such specimens outwardly resembled a machete. This weapon was most common at the very beginning of the Viking Age.

The main distinguishing features of a single-edged sword:

• the blade is sharpened on one side;
• blade length - 80-85 cm;
• lack of valley.

Such a sword was already longer than the spatha, but shorter than the double-edged "caroling", which very soon became widespread. The fact is that with the methods of struggle used at the dawn of the Middle Ages, the presence of two blades provided a great advantage: when the sword on one side became dull or damaged, the warrior turned it and used the opposite side.

Of course, the manufacture of weapons occupied a special place in the blacksmith's craft. As a rule, the weapons of a Viking warrior were an iron helmet with a half mask, chain mail, a wooden shield with metal fittings along the edges and a umbon in the center, an ax with a long handle and a double-edged sword.

Perfected Scandinavian sword of the 9th-11th centuries. became a true symbol of the era. In the special literature, it is called the "Viking sword". The "Viking sword" is a direct descendant of the spatha, a long double-edged sword of the Celts and a direct ancestor of the knight's sword. In fact, it should be called the "Viking sword", since these swords belong to a certain era and were worn by all the warriors of the Viking era, and not just the Vikings. However, the expression "Viking sword" also took root because the sword was a typical Viking weapon. Although the battle ax still played an important role, the sword was more valued by the Vikings.

The pagan Viking sagas are full of tales of special swords. For example, in the Edda about Helga Hjorvardsson, the Valkyrie Svava describes the hero’s magic sword as follows: “There is a ring on the head, courage in the blade, the blade inspires fear in front of the owner, a bloody worm rests on the blade, the viper curled up in a ring on the back.” Along with magic swords, famous family swords are known that have their own name and special qualities.

Viking swords: a - collection of the Bergen Museum; b - Scandinavian sword; c – modern reconstruction of the Viking sword of the 9th–11th centuries; d - from the collection of the German Museum

The Scandinavian sword of the Viking Age was a long, heavy double-edged blade with a small guard. The Viking sword weighed about 1.5 kg. Its usual length was about 80 ... 90 cm, the width of the blade was 5 ... 6 cm. Along the canvas on both sides of the blade of all Scandinavian swords there are valleys that served to lighten its mass. The thickness of the sword in the area of ​​the valley was about 2.5 mm, on the sides of the valley - up to 6 mm. However, the dressing of the metal was such that it did not affect the strength of the blade. In the IX-XI centuries. the sword was a purely slashing weapon and was not intended for stabbing.

During the Viking Age, swords increased somewhat in length (up to 930 mm) and acquired a slightly sharper end of the blade and the tip itself. Throughout continental Europe between 700-1000 B.C. n. e. swords of this design have been found, with minor differences. Not every warrior had a sword - it was primarily a professional weapon. But not every sword owner could boast of a magnificent and expensive blade. The hilts of ancient swords were richly and variously decorated. Masters skillfully and with great taste combined noble and non-ferrous metals - bronze, copper, brass, gold and silver - with a relief pattern, enamel and niello. Precious decorations were a kind of gifts to the sword for faithful service, signs of love and gratitude to the owner. They carried swords in scabbards made of leather and wood.

A clear evidence of the blacksmithing skills of the Viking Age is the Sutton Hoo Smoke sword, kept in the British Museum. In 1939, a magnificent, well-preserved ship burial was found on Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, England. As a result of research, archaeologists came to the conclusion that this is the grave of the Anglo-Saxon king Redwold, who died in 625. One of the most significant finds in this burial was Redwald's sword. His blade was welded from numerous strips of Damascus steel. The handle is almost entirely made of gold and decorated with cloisonné enamel. If gold cells are usually filled with colored enamel, then the Sutton-Khu sword has polished grenades inserted into them. Truly it was the weapon of the king, representing the highest standard of metallurgical art.

Specialists of the British Museum, using modern research methods, have established that the sword consisted of a core of complex design and blades welded to it. The core was made of eight bars, each consisting of seven Damascus steel rods. The bars are twisted in opposite directions and shackled alternately "torted" and "straight". Thus, a characteristic pattern was formed - a kind of "herringbone" and sections with a twisted pattern and a longitudinal pattern alternated along the length of the blade. The average length of both is 55 mm, and the pattern is repeated at least 11 times.

The British Museum offered to make a blade in the Sutton Hoo style to US blacksmith Scott Lankton, who is known for his work in this area. First, a package was welded by forge welding, then forged into a rectangular blank with decreasing dimensions (10 mm is the size of the larger base, and 6 mm is the smaller one) 500 mm long. The materials included in the package were selected based on the color they acquire after etching. Eight of the best twisted bars made up a package, welded at the ends by arc welding and additionally fastened with clamps.

The complex stack thus obtained was forge welded using borax as a flux. For the blade of the sword, a plate was forged, consisting of 180 layers of high-carbon steel (80% wt.) And soft iron (20% wt.). The core was “wrapped” with this plate, and it was welded to it by end forge welding. As a result, a sword with a total length of 89 cm was forged with a weight of just over a kilogram and a blade length of 76 cm.

After filing and polishing, the sword was hardened in oil. Vacation was made in hot oil. After seven days of grinding and polishing, the blade was etched in the "classic" 3% nitric acid solution. The beautiful pattern that appeared was like wisps of smoke rising from a flame. This type of pattern is now called Sutton Hoo Smoke. The Smoke Sutton Hoo sword is now part of the collection of the British Museum and is on permanent display next to the original. The Smoke Sutton Hoo sword is extremely popular with modern smiths who specialize in Damascus steel. His numerous replica reconstructions are known, including such outstanding masters as M. Sachse, M. Balbach, P. Bartha.

Another common weapon in the Viking Age was a heavy spear, which was significantly different from its counterparts from other countries. The northern spear had a shaft about five feet long with a long (up to half a meter) wide leaf-shaped tip. Such a spear could both stab and chop (which the Vikings, in fact, did with success).

Thus, the Scandinavian blacksmiths, who forged swords for their compatriot warriors, mastered the complex technology of blacksmith forging, pattern welding and heat treatment. In the technique of production and artistic decoration of swords, they surpassed the masters of both Europe and Asia, as evidenced, for example, by the fact that it was Scandinavian swords that were exported to the countries of these regions, and not vice versa.

The Viking Age left a huge mark on world history. The development of metallurgy and shipbuilding allowed them to achieve great success in the field of navigation. Until now, researchers have found traces of the Vikings in various parts of the world. The ability of the Vikings to make excellent weapons and tools, build ships and fight allowed them to take a leading position among other peoples of that era. Thanks to their technical achievements, the Vikings were able to make their raids and conquer vast territories. In the IX-XI centuries. they made trips up to 8000 km long. These bold and fearless people reached the borders of Persia in the east, and the New World in the west.

At first, only a small proportion of the Vikings participating in the raids could afford expensive weapons and armor. The bulk of the participants in the raids were ordinary warriors (karls). armed only with an ax or spear and shield. They were free-born Scandinavians, owners of small plots of land, who had the right to bear arms. They voluntarily joined an expedition organized by a wealthy compatriot (hersir) or noble jarl (jarl). and later king. Many ordinary soldiers were associated with leadership of various kinds of obligations. For these poor peasants, a successful expedition meant real wealth. After deducting significant interest to the owner of the ship, the rest of the booty was equally divided among the participants.

The raiders armed themselves and equipped themselves. At the same time, the weapons were the simplest, often home-made. Archaeologists believe that each participant in the raid kept personal belongings in his own chest, which served him and the rowing can. In the absence of the owner, his wife and children, as well as other relatives and slaves, took care of the farm.

During excavations at the sites of battles and settlements, archaeologists discover many tips for spears of various shapes and sizes. Scandinavian arrowheads were usually long and narrow, like the two examples on the right, although their transverse projections are more characteristic of the Carolingian army. The leaf-shaped tip second from the left is characteristic of the Celtic culture. The shape of the spearheads remained unchanged throughout the Viking Age.	The Danish ax became the weapon that turned out to be firmly associated with the image of the Viking. Even in distant Byzantium, the Varangian guard was often called the guard with axes. This warrior, in addition to an ax, is armed with a sword, which is suspended from a sling over his right shoulder. His armor consists of a segmental helmet and chain mail worn over a woolen shirt.	Ax examples. In the center is the "Danish ax" or Breidox. Symmetrical axes (right center and bottom) of thick hardened steel, connected in a butt of softer iron. The other four are the so-called "bearded axes" or skeggox. Pay attention to the shape of the butt with protrusions, which provides a tight fit and protects the ax from destruction. It was the Vikings who popularized the ax as a weapon.

Steel arms

The convincing victories of the Vikings over the whole of Europe seem incredible from the point of view of a rather modest arsenal of winners. The Vikings did not have any superiority in the quality and quantity of weapons over their opponents. In the period from the 7th to the 11th centuries. weapons and equipment were roughly the same throughout Europe, differing only in minor details and quality. Viking weapons were simple, almost any weapon (with the exception of the sword!) Could also be used as a tool in the household. The ax served for chopping firewood, the spear and bow for hunting, and the knife as a multi-purpose tool. Only the sword served exclusively for the purposes of war.

Taken by surprise during the robbery, the Vikings took up defense. A warrior in a helmet and quilted gambeson parries a sword blow with an axe. In the background, the second Viking has a shield pierced by an axe. Having picked up the shield with the beard of an ax, the warrior tries to wrest it from his hands. That is, the ax was used not only for striking, but also acted as a hook.	Reconstruction of the Saxons found in England, Ireland and (bottom three) Scandinavia. The Saxon second from the left has a hilt with a guard, but it is too short to be used as a sword, the hilts are made of wood, horn or bone. Some of the Saxons in the picture have handles consisting of two cheeks, planted on rivets, while others have one-piece handles, mounted on a shank.	The warrior is armed with a sword and shield, but an ax is also stuck in the belt from the back. The Arab chronicler Ibn Miskawai describes the Scandinavian warriors who attacked the trade center in 943: each armed with a sword, but fighting with a shield and a spear, and also had a knife or an ax on his belt. Pay attention to the short chain mail with a scalloped hollow. Helmet with chainmail aventail.
"Danish ax" with a long ax handle. The eccentric blade became widespread at the end of the 10th century. The cutting edge is 20 to 30 cm long, although there are references to axes with an edge of the order of 50 cm. The edge itself was often made of higher quality steel and welded onto the main part of the ax. Like swords, Viking axes sometimes got their own names, more often female ones. King Olif Haraldsson named his ax Hel after the Norse goddess of death. In the hands of a tall and physically strong warrior, the ax turned into a crushing weapon that could cut through any armor or knock the rider off the horse.	A group of warriors is armed not only with long spears, but also with shorter darts. In the drawings of that time, you can see warriors carrying but three or four darts. Throwing darts, the warrior took out a sword or ax, with which he continued the fight. Sometimes warriors are shown holding javelins in the same hand as the shield. Although the spear was a cheap weapon, this does not mean that only the poor were armed with it. Jarls and Khersirs could also have a spear, but rather decorated.	Although there are expensive and richly decorated swords, the typical Varangian sword was simple. Few warriors could afford swords with rich decoration. Swords were valued, first of all, by the quality of the blades, and not by the number of decorations hung on them.

Spears

Although historians and archaeologists continue to argue about which weapon was considered the main weapon throughout the Middle Ages, we can say with a high degree of probability that the spear was the main type of weapon. The spearhead requires relatively little iron, is easy to manufacture, and can be forged in large quantities. The shaft for the spear, in general, costs nothing and can be made by anyone at any time. Spearheads are found in almost every military burial. The tips had many applications and had different designs.

Light spears and darts were used for throwing. Warriors usually carried several darts to hit the enemy from a distance. The descriptions of the battle of Mallons in 991 say that the Vikings suffered losses from Anglo-Saxon darts that pierced chain mail. Apparently, the tip of the dart tore apart the riveted chain mail rings.

An even more powerful blow was delivered with a spear. The spear could be held with one or two hands. With a spear, it was possible not only to stab, but also to inflict cutting blows with a tip, beat with a shaft and block enemy blows with a spear. In the state of the Carolingians, the so-called "winged" spear, which had two protrusions at the bottom of the tip, became widespread. With the help of these protrusions, it was possible to cling to the shield of the enemy or the enemy himself. In addition, the protrusions prevented the spear from going too deep into the body of the victim and getting stuck there.

The length of the shaft varied from 150 to 300 cm. The length of the tip was from 20 to 60 cm. The diameter of the shaft reached 2.5 cm. Tips with a tulle could have different shapes: sticky and narrow, short, leaf-shaped, flat, round or triangular in cross section. Many of the spearheads discovered are made of welded steel, often with silver inlays. The most expensive tips are found in the graves of rich warriors. However, it does not follow from the above that the tips of the bowl were decorated most of all. If the spear was held with one hand, then the blow was usually delivered from top to bottom, aiming at the head or chest. Such a grip also made it possible, if necessary, to throw a spear without changing its position in the hand.

Axes

At the beginning of the Viking Age, two types of axes were most common: the cleaver and the small "bearded". Axes were available in any household, so the poorest warriors were primarily armed with them. Later, the ambition turned into a symbol of the Viking, inspiring fear in opponents. The ax had a handle 60-90 cm long. The cutting edge of the ax reached a length of 7-15 cm. The Francis throwing ax, invented by the Franks, was also found among the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings.

Later, the famous "Danish ax" appeared - a military weapon with a long cutting edge. Apparently, the Danish ax appeared as a response to the wider distribution of chain mail.

With a handle length of 120-180 cm, the ax had a large semilunar ax handle, the length of the cutting edge of which reached 22-45 cm. In the hands of a strong warrior, the Danish ax made it possible to knock down a rider or cut a shield with one blow. An ax could also foam a shield and destroy a wall of shields.

Saxons

The sax, like the ax, was an everyday tool that could also be used as a weapon. Almost every warrior had a sax. Excavations in York uncovered about 300 Saxons. Although these are Anlo-Saxon finds. York has long been the center of the Vikings. As the name of the knife implies, the Saxon was a Saxon knife, but neighboring nations also used them.

Saks - a knife sharpened on one side from 7.5 to 75 cm long. Two types of Saxons are known: short, up to 35 cm long and long, from 50 to 75 cm long. Initially, short Saxons were an everyday tool, which, if used as a weapon , then only to finish off wounded enemies. The long sax was originally designed as a weapon, but could also be used as a machete. Some long Saxons are equipped with hilts like swords. Such Saxons have been found in Viking graves in Ireland at Kilmanham Eilsndbridge.

The blades of the Saxons were straight and with only one cutting edge. The butt of the blade was often made wide, and the tip sharp, which made it possible to inflict stabbing blows with the Saxon. Sometimes in Scandinavia they find a Saxon with a sickle-shaped blade. The sax was carried in a leather scabbard, which was often decorated with a chalk, bronze or silver, depending on the wealth of the owner. As well as spears, axes and swords, the Saxons were sometimes decorated with silver inlay.

Two reconstructed sword hilts. Complex patterns are visible on the crosshairs and head. The left hilt corresponds to a find made in Jutland. The original was decorated with silver and brass inlays. The right handle is a copy of a find from the south of Sweden, although the sword itself was forged in England around 1000. The crosshair and head are decorated with gold, silver and black. On the right, the decoration of the scabbard of the sword, also very complex but in its design.

The Viking in the foreground has a helmet, chain mail, sword and shield. His outfit matches that found in a burial in Gjermundby, Norway. It seems that this is the burial of a wealthy Viking, dating back to the 10th century. A horse harness was also found in the grave.

swords

Swords were the most expensive type of weapon. The handles and crosshairs of swords were often finished with copper inlay or silver niello. Unlike an ax or a sax, a sword was not a very practical thing. There was a belief among warriors that each sword had mystical properties. The swords were given their own names. In a small area of ​​Haitaby, where excavations are underway, about 40 swords of various quality were found.

The Varangian sword had a double-edged blade 72-82 cm long and about 5 cm wide. The length of the handle was 7.5-10 cm. Over time, the length of the sword increased. The hand was covered by a short crosshair. As the length of the blade increased, the mass of the handle head, which served for balancing, increased. Failing to swing a sword with a mass of order

At the beginning of the Viking Age, the best blades were forged from several welded strips of steel. This complex technology involved welding strips of pure and carbon iron by forging. The result was a flexible and at the same time solid blade, in addition decorated with a pattern. Some blades had a welded core with hard steel cutting edges. One English source of the X century. reports that the price of the sword reached the foam of 15 slaves or 120 bulls.

In the ninth century the European market for swords was firmly held by Frankish blacksmiths. King Charles the Bald tried to ban the export of "strategic weapons". The Franks have found that the best results are obtained by using phosphor steel. The manufacture of phosphor steel required special knowledge, but was faster than the previous welded forging. Scandinavian blacksmiths, who did not know this secret, imported blade blanks from France, and then brought them to mind. Frankish blades have been found in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, the Baltic States, England and Ireland.

The scabbard was made of wood and covered with leather. Inside the sheath usually had an oiled lining that protected the blade from corrosion. The coccyx of the scabbard was covered with metal fittings. Sometimes the mouth of the scabbard was also reinforced with metal fittings. Initially, the scabbard was hung on a sling over the shoulder, which was passed under the waist belt. Later, the sheath began to be hung directly from the waist belt.

The Vikings held swords in one hand, holding a shield or sax in the other. When striking at the enemy, they tried to avoid hitting the enemy's sword. Although the blades differed in quality but by the standards of the early Middle Ages, when steel on steel struck, the blade could easily break.

Three reconstructed sword hilts, showing the most common variants. The left and middle handles are covered with silver, like the handle of an expensive sword from Haitaby. Pay attention to the wooden cheeks of the handle. The right handle has a five-lobed head decorated with twisted silver wire. The shape of the hilt corresponds to that of a sword hilt from a ship burial near Haitaby dated to the middle of the 9th century, although the original is more elaborately decorated.

A helmet, a sword and chain mail made up a fortune, a complete warrior who had a complete set of equipment was very wealthy - a hersir. Due to the high cost, the sword and chain mail were rarely placed in graves. The chain mail length reaches the middle of the thigh and has short sleeves. The chain mail is fastened on the back with a leather strap threaded through the holes. Pay attention to the design of chain mail. Each ring is connected to four neighboring ones. In the chain mail reconstructed today, the ends of the split rings are not connected by rivets or welding in order to save time.

Wealthy warrior (Khersir)

This warrior is called Hersir - a wealthy landowner who has the status of a local leader or clan leader. At the beginning of the Viking Age, the Hersirs were the organizers and leaders of the Viking raiding and colonization detachments. Their influence gradually decreased until the end of the X century. Monarchies did not develop in Scandinavia. From that time on, the Hersirs became the king's local representatives.

Apparently, the Khersir in the picture is a dual-believer, on his chest he wears a combined amulet, which is a combination of a cross and Thor's hammer. Such an amulet, dated to the 10th century, was found in Iceland. The plot on the shield goes back to Siorri Sturlusson's "Elder Edda": two wolves chase the moon and the sun across the sky, causing a change of day and night. When the wolves catch up with their prey and devour it. there will come a ragna-rek of a pen of light but of Scandinavian mythology. Then the fallen warriors left Valhalla and entered into their last battle on the side of the gods of Asgard against the giants. The death of the gods will lead to the final destruction of the world. Perhaps this hersir was even baptized. Vikings were often baptized to improve their ability to trade with Christian nations. Sometimes they were baptized for gifts, in other cases they were baptized at the request of the king. At the same time, there was ambivalence. On land, the Viking demonstrated his belonging to Christianity, and at sea he continued to make sacrifices to pagan gods.

Hersir carries a sax and two pouches for small accessories on his waist belt. His helmet is complemented by a chain mail aventail, and the sword hilt is a copy of a find made in Hedemarken (type 5 according to Peterson).	Over chain mail, this warrior wears a lamellar shell that protects the torso. Lamellar armor appeared in the Middle East. The lamella plates from which the shell was made could be of different shapes. The warrior's helmet is solid forged from a single piece of iron, but the nose plate is a separate piece. The helmet has a chain mail aventail with a leather lining. This design became popular in the 11th century. Pay attention to the difference in the diameter of the rings and the thickness of the wire. Archaeological finds testify to a wide variety of rings.	Reconstruction of a helmet from Gjermundbu, whose Varangian origin is beyond doubt. It has a chain mail backplate and a domino-shaped mask. The crosshair of the reinforcing plates is equipped with a small spike. The details of the helmet are connected with rivets. Apparently, the helmet belonged to the Varangian leader of the 10th century. Chain mail and a sword were found next to the helmet.
Leather boots fastened with wooden or horn buttons. Additional leather strips are sewn into the outsole for better traction. The boots were sewn in the same way as the "inverted shoes", but had a higher top.
Scalloped chain mail floor. This detail had no practical purpose, but served solely as an ornament. Under chain mail, the Khersir wears a woolen shirt and a quilted leather jacket or gabmenzon stuffed with hair, wool, or even hay.	T-shaped chain mail, characteristic of the 8th century. The floors reach the hip and are decorated with scalloped bottoms. Usually, a quilted gimbeson was worn under the chain mail, which softened the blows. In order not to hinder the movement of a warrior, holes were left under the armpits, which, of course, reduced the protective properties of chain mail.	Gambenson with diagonal stitching. Side slits make walking easier. Thick leather gambenzones themselves protected well from chopping and cutting blows. Gambenzones of the 11th century are known, sewn from the skin of the Lapland reindeer, comparable in strength to chain mail.

Armor and helmets

Vikings and their opponents, at least those who could afford it, could wear one of several types of armor. Armor was a very valuable acquisition, as wounds from bladed weapons often caused infection and death in the absence of hygiene and rudimentary knowledge of medicine. Blood poisoning or tetanus were common. Armor made it possible to avoid many injuries, which dramatically increased the likelihood of survival.

Popular opinion claims that the Vikings necessarily wore armor. In reality, this is not so. Mail (brynja or hringserkr) was expensive armor. therefore, in the VIII - X centuries. only a few Vikings could afford it. Archaeological excavations and surviving images show that in the VIII century. Viking chain mail had short sleeves and reached only the upper thigh. For example, in Gjermundbu, 85 fragments of chain mail of the 9th century were found.

During the 11th century the chain mail of the herd is longer. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts Norman and Anglo-Saxon warriors who participated in the Battle of Hastings in 1066, most of them wearing chain mail that reached the length of the knee (hauberk). The floor of the chain mail has a slit in front and behind, reaching the crotch, allowing you to ride in chain mail on horseback. During this period, simple T-shaped chain mail became more complicated. To it was added a mail balaclava and a face flap that covered the warrior's throat and lower jaw.

Depending on the size of the knees and the length of the chain mail, one chain mail took from 20,000 to 60,000 rings. The rings were of two types: flat, cut from a megalithic plate, and bent from wire. Wire spools were also divided into two types: open and closed.

Structurally, the chain mail fabric is divided into groups of five rings, in which four solid rings are connected by one open ring, the shocks of which are connected by a rivet. The mass of chain mail of the 11th century, which reached the knees and had long sleeves, was about 18 kg. In order to make such a coat of mail, the work of a master was required for a year. Therefore, only a very rich warrior could buy chain mail for himself.

It is difficult to say how common chain mail was in reality. Very rarely chain mail is found in burials. With careful care, the service life of chain mail is practically unlimited, they were passed down from generation to generation. Chainmail was too expensive a thing to simply lose or leave on the battlefield. During the Middle Ages, chain mail became widespread, but was still extremely rare in burials, especially since Christianity does not recognize "gifts from the grave."

Those who could not afford chain mail made do with one quilted gambeson. Gambenzones are depicted on stones, tapestries and wooden figures. They are easily distinguished by the lines of stitches that form a rectangular or rhombic pattern. In this case, the gambenzone is made of cloth with a rectangular stitch.	The manufacture of chain mail was a very laborious process, but it required relatively few tools and could be carried out in almost any forge. The manufacture of chain mail began with wire drawing in a cold or hot way. The wire was wound in a spiral onto a rod, and then it was cut along the rod. The resulting rings were passed through a cone so that the ends of the ring converged. The ends of the ring were red-hot, and then welded by forging. For other rings, the ends were riveted to a flat state and punched through with a punch. Later, a seal was inserted through this hole.	This re-enactor has T-shaped mail with a straight hollow, he is armed with a Saxon sword. Fragments of such chain mail were found in Gjermundbu along with a helmet. The rings were about 8.5 mm in diameter, with about 24 rings per square inch. Please note that the sleeves are integral with the rest of the chain mail.

Under chain mail, a warrior could wear a gambeson of his role - a two-layer shirt made of cloth, leather or linen with a lining of sheep's wool, horsehair or other suitable material. The layers were quilted to keep the padding from bunching up. Gambeson softened blows and did not allow chain mail to scratch the body. The leather gambeson served as a good protection in itself, it was often worn as an independent armor.

Mention should also be made of lamellar armor, little known in the West, as they were invented in the Middle East. But the Vikings, who in their raids reached Byzantium and even visited Baghdad, undoubtedly knew about such armor. The lamellar shell consists of many small iron plates called lamellae. Each plate has several holes. The plates were stacked in layers, partially overlapping each other, and connected with a cord. Lamellae of various shapes and sizes have been found in Birka, a trading town in central Sweden. Although studies have shown that these plates were scattered and did not constitute a single armor. apparently they were kept as blanks.

Banded bracers and greaves were another type of armor. This armor was assembled from metal strips about 16 mm wide and of different lengths. The plates were attached to leather belts. The ancestors of the Vikings also wore shells built according to this principle, as evidenced by the excavations in Velsgård, Sweden of the cultural layers of the 6th-7th centuries.

Helmets

The reenactor in the "helmet of St. Wenceslas", equipped with chain mail aventail. The helmet is forged from a single piece of metal, the nose plate is attached with rivets. The prototype dates from the 10th century. The decorative nose plate suggests that the helmet is of Nordic origin.	The picture shows helmets of various types found in Europe during the Viking Age. On the left is a reconstruction of the helmet of St. Wenceslas, which differs from the prototype in a more modest finish. In the center - a frame helmet with "eyebrows" and a chain mail backplate. On the right is a reconstruction of a helmet from Gjermundbu. Helmets are lined with cloth or leather and have a chinstrap. Sometimes helmets were additionally equipped with shock absorbers stuffed with wool or rags.	The so-called helmet from Getch, dated to the 9th century. The helmet consists of four triangular segments connected directly to each other. A holder for a plume is installed in the upper part, and a strip is launched along the bottom. Helmet of Slavic origin, has chain mail. Helmets of this design could be worn by the Eastern Vikings (Rus), such helmets could also end up in Scandinavia as a result of trade. The reenactor also wears a lamellar shell.

Only one example of a Varangian helmet has come down to us, discovered in Gjermundbu and dated to the end of the 9th century. The helmet consists of a forehead band, to which two curved bands are attached. One stripe goes from the forehead to the back of the head, and the other from ear to ear. There. where these two stripes intersect, a small spike is installed. These three strips form a frame to which four triangular segments lean. The owner's face was partially covered by a mask resembling a domino mask, decorated with inlaid "eyebrows". A chain mail aventail was originally attached to the back of the helmet. All parts of the helmet were interconnected with rivets.

Although this is a single find, documentary evidence has shown that such helmets were ubiquitous. Apparently, helmets of this type were a simplified version of a more complex helmet of the Wendel era. Several of these richly decorated helmets of the pre-Varangian era were found in Welsgård. They have a mask and chainmail aventail. The helmet cup is made of several small plates forming a hemisphere.

Around 900, another type of helmet became widespread among the Vikings, already common throughout Europe. This is the so-called segmental helmet (spangenhelm). These helmets featured a conical cup and a straight nose plate that protected the face. The images on the runestones indicate that this type of helmet was worn by many Vikings.

Shortly after the spread of the segmental helmet, a one-piece forged helmet appeared. Good examples of one-piece forged helmets are the helmet from Olomouc and the "helmet of Wenceslaus" from Prague. Both have a nose plate, moreover, in the Olomouc helmet, the plate forms a single unit with the helmet, while in the helmet from Prague, the cruciform nose plate is made as a separate piece, attached to the cup with rivets. In addition to these basic types, there were various transitional forms. There were also helmets that consisted of only four segments connected directly to each other, without any frame.

The internal details of the helmets cannot be reconstructed on the basis of archaeological finds. But, most likely, there was a leather or cloth lining inside the helmet, riveted to the helmet. The helmet also had a chin strap. Many warriors wore cloth balaclavas, which softened blows to the head. Although the helmet was cheaper than mail, it was an expensive item that every Viking could have. Hats made of thick leather or fur, which are also often found on images from rune stones, served as cheap replacements for the helmet.

If the helmets of the pre-Varangian era were richly decorated, then the Viking helmets were simple. Even rich helmets had decorations only on the frame stripes, nose plate and mask. It is also known from the texts that colored marks (herkumbi) were often made on helmets, which served as signs of quick identification in battle.

Finally, it should be noted that the Vikings did not wear horns on their helmets, so that Hollywood artists would not think about this in costumes. This common misconception stems from mis-dating of earlier finds from other European cultures, as well as misinterpreted crude images dedicated to Odin. Odin was usually depicted as a raven on a helmet. The left and right wings of the raven were taken for horns.

Many Vikings wore a segmental helmet and a gambeson. During the 11th century segmental helmet (spangenhelm) was the most common type of helmet in Europe. On runestones, warriors are depicted wearing conical headdresses, which can be either segmental helmets or solid forged helmets like the helmet of St. Vsntseslav. It is also possible that leather caps were depicted in this way.	Reconstruction of a segmented helmet with "eyebrows" above the nose plate, typical for helmets of Scandinavian origin. Although archaeologists have not found this type of helmet, “eyebrows” are found on many other Varangian helmets. The helmet has a leather lining, the edge of which is visible along the lower edge of the helmet, and chain mail. Pay attention to the long nose plate, which protects not only the nose, but also the mouth.	Segmental helmet (spangenhelm) with temporal plates and chain mail aventail. The temporal plates are suspended on rings. Pay attention to the large hairpin that fastens the cloak. This Varangian hairpin dates back to the 8th-9th centuries.

Wendel-era helmet discovered in Valsgård, Sweden. The exact dating of the helmet is impossible, we can only say that it appeared 100-200 years earlier than the beginning of the Viking Age, that is, around the 6th-7th centuries. The similarity with the helmet from Gjermundbu is clearly visible: a chain mail backplate and a domino mask, in this case with bronze “eyebrows”. This example is richly decorated and has a more complex design than the Gjermundbu helmet. Plates decorated with chasing are inserted into the cells of the lattice. The plates depict warriors carrying shields and spears, dressed in shirts. The "horned" helmets are actually the raven-winged helmets of the god Odin Hugin and Munyia. A chain mail backplate and a mask are suspended along the edge of the helmet. The helmet from Gjermundbu also has holes along the bottom edge.

The reconstructed helmets are not of Scandinavian origin, but the Vikings may well have had them. Top left and right are helmets of the type from Olomouc, but with the tip curved forward. Although the helmet from Olomouc dates from the 9th century, these examples date back more to the 12th century. In the center - a front view of a Slavic helmet, which could be worn by the Eastern Vikings and Varangian guards. The helmet is equipped with a horsehair plume holder. Below, left and right, are two reconstructions of the helmet of St. Wenceslas. Below in the center is a frame helmet, the parietal plate is clearly visible, covering the connection of the frame elements.

Briefly about Viking weapons

“Lord deliver us from the wrath of the Vikings and the Magyar arrow” - this prayer is still pronounced in Europe
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The Vikings were amazing, magnificent, tireless and wonderful specialists in robbery attacks, organizing criminal gangs, murders by prior conspiracy of two or more persons, as well as extremism, terrorism, mercenarism and insulting the feelings of believers. But as they say, they are not like that - such is life, back in the 50s of the twentieth century. Norway was a completely impoverished country, due to crazy economic problems from Sweden in the early twentieth century. 1.3 million Swedes left, all because of hunger and poverty, but what about the VIII-X centuries? Little grows on bare rocks, there is iron ore, which allowed the development of blacksmithing, stunted sheep breeding and fishing in the harsh waters of the Norwegian, North and Baltic Seas, that's the whole economy. The same can be attributed to the north-west of Russia and the Baltics, where poor agriculture, hunting and fishing did not allow to lead a well-fed life, so the influx into the Viking formations did not stop, there were gangs, which, according to evidence, consisted exclusively of Slavs.

There were much richer neighbors in the south, and on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea there were simply fabulously rich people, naturally, in the head of a medieval person, not burdened by any morality and other pseudo-cultural husks, a logical thought arises - to take away and give to your loved one. Since the Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Icelanders, Balts and Slavs got along well, armed with what they could (mostly with clubs, spears and knives) on one fine day for them and terrible for all others living from Egypt to Dublin and from Baghdad before Seville, the Vikings took their monstrous sea dragons out to sea.

What exactly is the success of these sea vagrants? There were more of them in a certain place at a certain time - the only main secret of any war, no need to leaf through Xun Tzu, he did not know about this because there are always and everywhere more Chinese than the enemy, however, this has never helped them. Europe is an extremely sparsely populated place even now, towns and villages are often scattered, but unsociable people a couple of kilometers apart may not see each other for years. What can we say about the times of the Vikings, when the largest metropolis of Novgorod had 30,000 inhabitants, the large European city of London had a population of 10,000 people, and the average village around the castle had well, if 100-150 inhabitants, along with a baron, warriors, a molted falcon, dogs and wife.

Therefore, a sudden landing of 20-30 more or less combat-ready, and most importantly well-motivated Vikings, was a crushing blow to the stretched coastal defenses. Moreover, this is not a modern situation, when the notification occurs in minutes, and the flight time from Lipetsk to Estonia of the strike force is 42 minutes. Then the villagers only by the alarm (if anyone survived) and smoke could find out that an attack had been committed. If the local prince or baron was in place, then there might have been some resistance, at least at the level to close in the tower and wait while firing back until the Vikings left, the villagers did the same, they fled or, having learned about the attack, sat out in the forest farms . There was no united resistance from the whole village, so even a single detachment of Vikings, understandably limited in number by the number of places on the drakkar (the huge one took 80 people, and temporarily up to 200), had in front of the baron with 10-15 servants and 3-4 villagers with bows and at best with scramasaxes or axes, overwhelming superiority. Well, like all the marines, they were guided by the motto: "the main thing is to get away in time" until the detachment of the king or duke arrived. Each Viking is a drakkar motor, if there are too few of them left to row, write wasted. A squadron formation of 10-20 drakkars could easily lay siege to London or Ladoga. Regarding serials and women in hird or blacks - 50 years ago in Sweden it would have sounded like a great anecdote, women were occasionally rulers, but I don’t remember a single saga about a woman, let alone a black hirdman, because this is impossible.

Over time, having accumulated wealth and equipped their harsh lands, the Vikings got a taste and, instead of the boring northern summer, they had incendiary annual sea cruises in order to rob their neighbors, rape them in perverted forms, and, with resistance, kill them with preliminary severe torture. In addition to robbery, they gradually began to trade, because they realized that goods valued in Ladoga (wine, jewelry, swords) are not so expensive in Seville, but in Rome, inexpensive wax, honey and furs can be sold well on the Novgorod market. Like all poor nations, the Vikings became mercenaries, not only in the Slavic, but also in the Roman lands, their detachments were monstrously cruel, poorly controlled and self-willed, in Novgorod there are a lot of laws and documents related to the criminal offenses of the Vikings. Needless to say, when the captains of Rurik, the legendary Askold and Dir, having deserted from the army, simply put together an organized crime group and easily captured Kyiv, which was completely normal for the Vikings, who twice besieged Paris, repeatedly captured London and passed fire and sword through all lands from the Levant to Lapland.

According to the battle tactics, the Vikings were mainly marines, that is, they specialized in the landing of amphibious assaults, which determines the northern nature itself with many water arteries. As such, there were no roads in those days in the north, so all life flowed along rivers, lakes and seas, where the Vikings felt great. The Vikings had horses, rich Vikings even had war horses, they were transported on drakkars, but in general, small furry Viking ponies, little different from a tall dog, were used as a very auxiliary force in rocky terrain where there was nowhere to graze. The movement of the Vikings was on the ship, then landing and fast foot crossings, which is why the type of heavy infantry weapons was developed, which made it possible to move quickly and resist a few cavalry in a shield formation with spears.

The main Viking weapon is the spear, it is cheap, easy to replace, its use against any other weapon except the halberd is devastating.


The Viking shield is also a weapon - knocked together from boards with glue, with a crossbar for holding, sometimes covered with fabric or leather, with an iron umbon to protect the fist - they can be beaten. There was no binding, it was made of different types of wood, held in a fist, worn behind the back, transported on board a longship.

The Viking ax is a popular weapon - cheap, strong. They were by no means of heroic size - they can also be perfectly wielded.


What is called a battle ax is an axe. It was slightly larger than a battle ax, sometimes double-sided.

The war hammer (pictured are French samples) was also by no means of a heroic size.

According to the typology, the Carolingian Viking swords are characteristic of all of Europe at that time and came out of the Carolingian Empire, which included Germany, France and Italy. The Carolingian type of sword crystallized around the 8th century, at the end of the era of the Great Migration of Nations, at the beginning of the unification of the states of Western Europe under the auspices of Charlemagne and his descendants, which explains the name of the type of sword (“refers to the Carolingian era”).

The Viking sword is a weapon mainly slashing, rarely seen in the saga that someone was stabbed. The usual length of a sword of the 10th century was about 80 - 90 cm, however, a sword of 1.2 m in length was found in Russia. The width of the blade was 5 - 6 cm, thickness 4 mm. Along the canvas on both sides of the blade of all Viking swords are valleys (Fuller), which served to lighten the weight of the blade. The end of the sword, not designed for stabbing, had a rather blunt point, and sometimes even simply rounded. The pommel or apple (Pommel), hilt (Tang) and crossguard of the sword (Guard) on rich swords were decorated with bronze, silver and even gold, but more often, unlike the Slavic Carolingians, Viking swords were rather modestly decorated.

As it usually appears in films, a certain master forges a sword day and night to the heroic music and hands it over to the main character, which is absolutely not the case. Perhaps somewhere in a remote village, a blacksmith who ascended above himself, usually forging sickles, scythes and nails, would have forged a sword if he had obtained a lot of iron somewhere, but the quality of this sword would have been low. Another thing is the weapons corporations that were engaged in the manufacture of weapons and, in particular, Carolingian swords on an industrial scale. For some reason, few people know that even in the Stone Age, and certainly in the Bronze Age, in all regions of Europe there were large corporations that produce weapons, even by today's standards. The division of labor was also characteristic of the production of the Carolingian sword, so the swords were made by several craftsmen, and the corporation put a trademark. It changed over time, the type of inscription changed, fonts changed, rebranding took place, because of illiteracy or other reasons (Albanian language?!) the letters in the inscriptions turned over. For example, in Russia there were two such corporations LIUDOT KOVAL and SLAV, as evidenced by signature swords in museums.

In Scandinavia, apparently, there were smaller corporations that did not put their trademark or did not have the right to do so, but there were many exported swords, although the Carolingian Empire strictly forbade the sale of swords to anyone, but this law was poorly enforced or, judging by the number finds were not performed at all. In Germany, the huge arms corporation ULFBERHT worked, whose swords are simply dotted with Scandinavian countries and Slavic lands, there were other massive signature swords, that is, other corporations such as CEROLT, ULEN, BENNO, LEUTLRIT, INGELRED worked.

The so-called signature swords were found throughout Europe, it is clear that the production of swords was put on stream and the arms trade was carried out everywhere. Making a sword in a corporation had the advantage of maximum output at minimum cost and expense with the best possible product quality. Iron was purchased in bulk at the lowest prices, scrap was processed into less important products, apprentices were engaged in the manufacture of an iron base requiring low-skilled blacksmithing, master blacksmiths assembled a blade that was complex. Master jewelers decorated the sword if it was of the appropriate value, or their apprentices stuffed a couple of cheap designs. This approach, by the way, is typical for artists - apprentices write the background, most of the characters, and the master finishes the face of the main character or applies a couple of strokes and puts his signature.

The blade consisted of an iron or iron-steel base with hardened blades welded to it, then they learned to cover the iron base with steel plates from above, and later they learned how to make a solid blade. The iron base was made twisted or chopped and repeatedly forged again to create the so-called welding damascus, known from the 2nd-3rd centuries. This gave the blade with hard and sharp, but not flexible and brittle blades the necessary plasticity and the ability to bend under load. With the growth of blacksmithing skills, the complex technology of damaskine was abandoned, since the quality of the iron base had already become acceptable and the blades no longer bear such a revered pattern that appears when etching wrought iron.

Swords were worn in wooden or leather scabbards, less often in iron, they could be covered with leather or later with velvet, any material that gave a “barbaric” chic, at that time they loved everything different from the color of the linen and raw leather. The colors in both clothing and weapon decoration were the brightest of the available organic dyes, as soon as the warrior got rich - pommels, tips, plaques, brooches and rings glistened in the sun like a jewelry store. They wore a sword on a belt or sling, not behind their backs, which is inconvenient both when rowing and when hiking, when the shield is thrown behind their backs. The scabbards were richly decorated, which is clear from the surviving tips, sometimes made of precious metals. NO ONE EVER carried a sword in a scabbard behind his back - it is impossible to get it out of there.

In addition, the Vikings had the second most popular sax or scramasax sword (lat. sax, scramasax) - rather a long knife than a short sword that came from the ancient Germans, but among the Vikings it had approximately the same length as the Carolingian up to 90 cm and a characteristic design handles. The Saxons, by the way, flatter themselves with the hope that their people comes from the name of this knife.


The length of the blade of the pan-European Saxon reached half a meter, the thickness was over 5 mm (for the Scandinavians and Slavs it could reach up to 8 mm), the sharpening was one-sided, the end was pointed, the shank, as a rule, was asymmetrical, the pommel of the handle was often made in the form of a raven's head. When using the Saxon, thrusting was preferred; according to the evidence, he pierced good chain mail and leather armor. More often, the sax was used not separately as a sword, but as a large knife in everyday life, something like a machete, but together with a sword as a daga (dagger), if the shield was torn out.

Helmets, like swords, were a status item and not everyone had them. Basically, they copy the helmet from Gjermundby (Jarmundby), partially preserved and incorrectly assembled in the museum from pieces.




The nasal helmet (Norman, as it is called in Russia) was typical for the Slavs and Europe, partly for the Vikings, it is most often used because of its cheapness.


Chain mail was an expensive pleasure, they mostly managed with leather jackets with bone or iron lining, or generally went into battle without armor. Chain mail - each ring was riveted, of course, no "briefing" - that is, just a ring cut and flattened by flats).

There were also lamellar armor - especially after serving in Byzantium, the so-called "plank armor" - metal plates connected by straps or rings of steel, such were from the Bronze Age bone, bronze, then iron, steel, in India, among samurai and Slavs as well as the Vikings.


The Vikings naturally had bows, crossbows (crossbows) and darts (sulits).


You are on your boat, and do not spend the night in houses:
The enemy can easily hide there.
On the shield the Viking sleeps, he squeezed his sword in his hand,
And only the sky is its roof ...
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You are in bad weather and a storm, unfurl your sail,
Oh, how sweet this moment will be ..
On the waves, on the waves, better straight to the forefathers,
Than to be a slave to your fears...

The medieval Viking had three main values ​​that testify to his social position - vehicle (horse or ship), outfit and, of course, the weapon that he always kept with him. The weapons of the medieval Scandinavians were very diverse, for every taste and for every situation, as you can see for yourself.

Attributes of a real warrior

As we all know, the Vikings were very warlike. By the way, they put a negative connotation into the word “Viking” itself - after all, not all medieval Scandinavians were called that before, but only those of them who were engaged in maritime robbery.

Nevertheless, in the event of an attack, not only warriors participating in campaigns, but also small landowners (bonds) protecting their allotment, household, slaves and servants could stand up for themselves and their families. Moreover, even a simple Scandinavian peasant or shepherd in the VIII-XI centuries. (this period in history is called the Viking Age) knew how to fight.

Therefore, there were many weapons. He was always kept with him. And it got to the point that, sitting down at the table at home, the Vikings put the sword next to them at arm's length. You never know.

A beautiful and solid weapon was a source of pride, they could well have been killed for it. After all, the property of the vanquished passed to the winner. There was also the concept of “ancestral weapons”, which were inherited. And if the weapon was presented as a gift, then this gift was assessed as very generous. Wealthy people decorated it - gilded, silvered, they also decorated the walls. Indeed, why hang carpets when you can hang shields or spears on the wall? Therefore, the profession of a blacksmith was considered prestigious, and even rich people, but what are people, even gods in the Scandinavian pantheon, could forge swords at their leisure. In the Elder Edda, for example, the wizard-blacksmith Völund is mentioned, a magnificent craftsman who also flew on wings made by himself.

About glorious swords

The most common Viking weapons were swords and spears. There were a great many swords - the researchers count up to 26 types, distinguished by the shape of the handle. Among them were swords with long blades (sverd), and with short ones, intended for close combat (skalm), and a heavy sword - sax.

Swords at the Viking Museum in Hedeby, source: wikimedia

They also differed in the number of blades. There were both with one blade and with two. All, however, were united by a similar length of the blade - from 70 to 90 cm, and the weight of the sword - from 1 to 1.5 kg. The blades, as a rule, were wide and narrowed slightly only towards the tip, mainly for chopping blows.

In addition, Scandinavian swords have valleys - special grooves on the blade that lighten its weight. On the valleys, it was customary to put the mark of the master-manufacturer. Swords were decorated with twisted handles, images or runes etched on the blades.

Interestingly, Swedish swords were valued more than Icelandic or Norwegian ones: it was all about the quality of the steel. But the Frankish ones were considered the best, they are also called "Carolingian type" swords.

Judging by the hallmarks, every third sword was of Frankish origin, which, however, is highly debatable. Thus, researchers believe that local craftsmen often stylized their products as fashionable imported swords and forged hallmarks.

Spears, axes and other tools of the militant people

Now about the spears, which also had many varieties. Some were distinguished by a wide leaf-shaped tip, which could be both stabbed and chopped. Such spears were very heavy and long - the shaft of the Scandinavian spear reached a length of about 1.5 m. Other throwing spears were lighter and more meek, with a relatively narrow tip. They are still easy to recognize by the metal ring, which helped to correctly indicate the center of gravity during the throw. Spears could be made with plumage, as well as fetter the shaft with iron (such a spear was called a stake in armor). Sometimes the tip itself was supplemented with a hook like a harpoon. It turned out to be a very practical device if you need to attack a ship or pull an enemy off a horse.

The Vikings were also very fond of battle axes, including axes, axes with a semicircular blade, sharpened on the outside. In particular, during excavations of mounds in Norway, 1200 axes are found for 1500 swords.

Battle axes differed from ordinary ones in their smaller size, greater lightness and narrower blade, so that if necessary it could be thrown. There were also more massive axes, the so-called "Danish". Wide axes with a long thin blade, and sometimes with a hook, were valued. They held the ax with both two and one hand, which was much more common.

A little more about weapons, or Everything was used

In general, in addition to spears and axes, a lot of other things were thrown at the enemy. For example, darts or stones. There were even special belts for throwing stones - they were convenient during the siege. They could crush the wall or shields, for example. They also used bows, both heavy and light, made from one piece of wood (ash, elm, yew), with a string of tightly woven hair. Arrows, or rather their tips, were different. For battles - narrower and thinner, and wider for hunting. A knife hung around the neck all the time - they were also used to cut meat during dinner, or to practice manual dexterity in their free time.

For protection, the Vikings wore iron chain mail made of link plates, and under them thick quilted vests. Helmets were put on the head: just felt or metal, over the felt. The shields were wide, both oblong (the length of the warrior's height, so that the deceased could be carried on it), and smaller round ones. They were decorated with bright colors, coats of arms, and images from overlaid metal.

viking shield

As we can see, almost anything could serve as a weapon, even the butt of an ax or a club. For example, Thor, the most revered god of the ancient Scandinavians (despite the fact that Odin was supreme), generally had a Hammer. Visiting temples where it was forbidden to draw weapons, or coming to the place of the Thing (gathering of free people), the Vikings tied the scabbards on the "strings of the world", but they still kept their weapons with them. They took care of him, loved him, decorated him (with silver and gold, protective runes, gems) and even gave their names - for example, in the medieval sagas, the ax Star, the spear Gray blade, the armor of the Principal, Emma's chain mail and the completely ridiculous ax of the Beetle or Boar are mentioned.

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