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International space law in brief. Xvi international space law. international space law

Topic number 9.

1. The concept, sources and principles of the ITUC.

2. legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies.

3. legal regime of space objects.

4. legal regime of astronauts.

MCP is one of the newest branches of modern MT.

The ISL is a set of norms and principles of the International Standards that regulate the relations of states in the use and exploration of outer space and celestial bodies.

MCP sources are predominantly international treaties. The main MDs in this area include the following:

· an agreement on the principles of the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies. (1967 - space treaty).

· agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of astronauts and the return of objects launched into outer space, 1968.

· Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972.

· Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1975.

· agreement on the activities of states on the moon and other celestial bodies, 1979. (Treaty of the Moon).

Principles of the ITUC:

freedom to use outer space, the moon and other celestial bodies without any discrimination

freedom to explore outer space, the moon and other celestial bodies without any discrimination

ban on the extension of state sovereignty to outer space, the moon and other celestial bodies

ban on private appropriation of outer space, the Moon and other celestial bodies

The legal regime of outer space, the Moon and other celestial bodies is established and regulated only by the MP

partial demilitarization of outer space (partial demilitarization - military equipment can be used in outer space, but only for peaceful purposes)

· complete demilitarization of outer space, the Moon and other celestial bodies (testing of any types of weapons is prohibited in outer space and on celestial bodies).

for the violation of these principles, states bear international legal responsibility.

KP and NT are territories with m-p regime. those. any state has the right to use and study these objects for peaceful purposes.

The CP begins at an altitude of 100-110 km above sea level. where the airspace ends.

Celestial bodies are any objects of natural origin located in the CP.

States cannot extend their sovereignty to outer space and celestial bodies.

States have the right to place various objects on the surface of celestial bodies. These objects are the property of states, but can be used by cosmonauts if necessary (cosmonauts of any nationality).


Neither the KP nor the NT can be owned in any way. Cannot be the property of the state, FL or LE.

Space objects (OS) are objects of artificial origin that are launched into outer space for its exploration.

satellites

spaceships and their parts

KOs are owned by the states in whose territory they were registered. They are used only for peaceful purposes. There is no private ownership of KOs.

States are required to register all spacecraft that are launched into space from their territory.

The United Nations maintains a general register of all FGMs.

SO located in outer space is subject to the jurisdiction of the state in which it was registered.

If the SC is owned by several states, then the rules of the MT apply on board.

The state is responsible for the technical condition of the KO. if SOs cause damage to any objects in the CP, or on the surface of the Earth, then the responsibility for this damage lies with the state to which this SO belongs.

Astronauts are crew members of spacecraft.

Astronauts are the messengers of mankind in space.

Astronauts are immune. Immunity is associated only with the performance by astronauts of their official duties.

In outer space, cosmonauts have the right to use objects belonging to any state, but only for peaceful purposes and without causing damage to these objects.

it is believed that the cosmonauts are in an extreme situation to the CP. Cosmonauts are not responsible if during landing they violate the air border of a foreign state.

In principle, there are rules for landing a space object on Earth. The MP provides that if they landed in another state, this is not a violation of national or international law.

international space law- this is a set of international legal principles and norms that establish the regime of outer space and celestial bodies and regulate relations between states, international organizations and commercial firms in connection with the exploration and use of outer space.

The origin of international space law as a branch of public international law is associated with the beginning of the practical activities of states in outer space, in particular, with the launch in the USSR on October 4, 1957 of the first artificial satellite of the Earth.

A limited number of highly developed states with the appropriate capabilities are now engaged in space activities. They are the main subjects of international space law. But as a result of such activity and in its international legal regulation, all the states of the world, humanity as a whole, are interested. Therefore, the legal regulation of space activities from the very beginning began to be carried out through the conclusion, mainly, of universal international agreements open to the participation of all states. The main role in the development of such treaties belongs to the United Nations represented by the General Assembly, its subsidiary body - the Committee on the Broader Uses of Outer Space and its subcommittee on legal issues.

Many international regulations on international space law have been adopted, including:

Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 1967,

Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space 1968,

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused to Outer Space Objects 1972,

Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1976,

Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies 1979,

Agreement on the Procedure for Financing Joint Activities in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space 1992,

Memorandum of Cooperation between the National Space Agency of Ukraine and the Russian Aerospace Agency in the field of development of global navigation satellite systems 2003 and others.

International space law is based on the following principles:

1. Freedom to explore and use outer space and celestial bodies.

3. Preservation of the sovereign rights of states to space objects launched by them.

4. Rendering assistance to the crew of the spacecraft in the event of an accident or disaster.

5. International responsibility of states for their activities in outer space.

6. Promoting international cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space.

Subject of international space law is a participant, including a potential one, in international legal relations regarding activities in outer space or the use of space technology, a bearer of international rights and obligations.

Object of international space law- this is all about what the subjects of international space law can enter into international legal relations, i.e. outer space, the Moon and other celestial bodies, astronauts, artificial space objects, ground components of space systems, results of practical space activities, space activities, forms of cooperation between states in outer space, liability for damage from lawful space activities, etc.

Space~ synonymous with the astronomical definition of the universe. Distinguish between near space, including "near-Earth" space, and deep space - the world of stars and galaxies.

Space- space that extends beyond the earth's atmosphere. Sometimes they consider not outer space as a whole, but certain parts of it, characterized by different properties - near-Earth outer space, interplanetary space, interstellar space, etc. There is no treaty rule in international space law that establishes a boundary between airspace and outer space. The dominant point of view is that such a feature should be set at an altitude of about 100-1000 km above the Earth's surface.

Astronaut- a person who conducts testing and operation of space technology in space flight.

The main principle governing legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies, is that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall not be subject to national appropriation, either by claiming sovereignty over them, or by use or occupation, or by any other means". Thus, outer space is open and free for exploration and use by all states; state sovereignty does not extend to it.

At the same time, it is essential for the legal relations of states regarding outer space that openness and freedom for the exploration and use of outer space are not absolute, but have limitations enshrined in international legal acts, for example, in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. In particular

1. The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, regardless of their degree of economic or scientific development, and is the property of all mankind.

2. States Parties shall be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance and shall carry out all their activities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, with due regard to the respective interests of all States Parties to the Treaty.

3. The States Parties to the treaty undertake not to launch into the Earth's orbit any objects with nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction, not to install such weapons on celestial bodies, and not to place such weapons in outer space in any other way.

In Art. III of this treaty emphasizes that the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out in accordance with international law, including the Charter of the United Nations. The states parties to the agreement pledged "to establish an international regime, including appropriate procedures, to regulate the exploitation of the natural resources of the moon." At the same time, the main objectives of such an international regime include:

Orderly and safe mastery of the natural resources of the Moon;

Rational regulation of these resources;

Expanding opportunities to use these resources;

Equitable distribution among all participating States of the benefits derived from these resources.

Responsibility in international space law includes two aspects:

1) international responsibility of states for violation of the norms and principles of international law;

2) liability for damage caused as a result of space activities.

The responsibility of states for space activities is established by Art. VI of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which states that the states parties to the treaty bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, regardless of whether it is carried out by governmental organizations and non-governmental legal entities. If space activities are carried out by an international organization, the responsibility for the implementation of the provisions of the treaty shall be borne, along with the international organization, also by the states parties to the treaty that are members and organizations.

In accordance with Art. VII of the Outer Space Treaty, international liability for damage caused by space objects or their components on Earth, in the air and in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is borne by the state that carries out or organizes the launch, as well as the state from the territory or whose settings are being launched.

Liability arises when damage is caused to another state by individuals or legal entities.

States bear absolute responsibility for damage caused by space objects on the Earth's surface or to an aircraft in flight; for damage caused by one space object to another, the responsibility of the state arises only if there is fault. Exemption from liability is provided in case of gross negligence or intent of the victim and a one-year limitation period is established.

The amount of compensation shall be calculated in accordance with international law and the principles of justice in such a way as to ensure the restoration of the state of affairs that would have existed if the damage had not been caused.

Disputable situations are regulated by specially created ad hoc commissions composed of representatives of the plaintiff state; launching a space object, and jointly chosen by them heads. The decision of the commission is binding if an agreement is reached between the parties. In other cases, it is only a recommendation. These provisions apply to international organizations engaged in outer space activities if such an organization declares that it assumes the rights and obligations provided for by the convention, and provided that the majority of the member states of the organization are parties to the 1972 convention and the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, the responsibility is jointly and severally as the organization itself, and holding you members.

In our time, the vigorous activity of the private sector in outer space requires a revision of the basic principles and norms of international space law and the strengthening of the positions of national space legal regulation. One of the characteristic features of this sphere is the heterogeneity of the subjects of space activities. The subjects of national space law can be both national and foreign individuals and legal entities, international organizations and states.

For example, the Law of Ukraine "On Space Activities" dated November 15, 1996 includes enterprises, institutions and organizations, including international and foreign ones, engaged in space activities as subjects of space activities. Individuals, according to the Law, are not subjects of space activities. And the Law of the Russian Federation of August 20, 1993 "On space activities" does not contain a definition of the term "subjects of space activities", but, analyzing it, organizations and citizens of the Russian Federation can be attributed to such entities; foreign citizens and organizations carrying out space activities under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation; international organizations and foreign states.

Since states and international organizations are subjects of international space law, they can directly carry out activities for the exploration and use of outer space. Individuals and legal entities are not subjects of international space law and can carry out space activities, regulated by international space law only on behalf of the state of their jurisdiction.

Ukraine, as a subject of international space law, carries out its space activities on the basis of equality with other states, taking into account its national interests. Ukraine ensures the fulfillment of its international obligations in the field of space activities and is responsible for the generally recognized norms of international law and the provisions of international treaties of Ukraine (Article 17 of the Law).

Space activities in Ukraine are carried out on the basis of the All-State (National) Space Program of Ukraine, which is being developed for five years. it is created by the National Space Agency of Ukraine together with the relevant central executive authorities and the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine based on the purpose and basic principles of space activities in Ukraine. On the basis of the National Space Program, the following is carried out:

determining the needs for civil, defense and dual-use space technology, as well as concluding contracts in accordance with the current legislation for research and development and production of space technology for the current year, which are approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine;

allocation of funds from the State Budget of Ukraine to finance space activities under government orders; training personnel at the expense of the State budget and taking measures for the social protection of personnel of space activities;

ensuring support and improvement of space activities objects of ground infrastructure, as well as the necessary level of safety of space activities;

ensuring international cooperation in the space sector, including Ukraine in international space projects.

Key terms and concepts

international space law; space; partially demilitarized zone; celestial bodies; complete neutralization; geostationary orbit; delimitation of air and outer space; space object; astronaut; space activities; launching state; international liability for damage caused by space objects; international direct television broadcasting; remote sensing of the Earth; nuclear power sources; non-governmental legal entities; commercial space activities; international private space law; international warranty for mobile equipment.

The formation of international space law

International space law - this is a set of international principles and norms that establish the legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies and regulate the rights and obligations of subjects of international law in the field of exploration and use of outer space and celestial bodies.

International space law, according to doctrinal assessment, has gone through three stages of development and is currently at the fourth stage.

First stage (1957–1967) begins with the development of the foundations of international space law. Pioneers in this area were the Soviet lawyer Korovin (1934) and the Czech lawyer Mandl (1932).

International documents appeared after the launch in the USSR on October 4, 1957 of the first artificial Earth satellite in the history of mankind and the establishment in 1958 as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly of the Special Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (resolution 1348 (XIII) of December 13 1958). The first session of this committee turned out to be fruitless, it was boycotted by the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, India and Egypt. The reason for this was the inadequate representation in the committee of socialist and developing countries (three from each group) and the United States with its allies (12 countries). This injustice was eliminated in the resolution of the UN General Assembly 1472 (XIV) of December 12, 1959 (the committee included 24 states - 7 socialist, 7 developing and 10 capitalist). This body of the UN General Assembly received a new name - the Committee on the Peaceful Uses and Exploration of Outer Space (hereinafter referred to as the UN Committee on Outer Space), and acquired permanent status.

Since that time, the Committee has held annual sessions, and in 1962 it established the Legal and Scientific and Technical Subcommittees, which also meet annually. Since 1962, the Committee has taken decisions by consensus. As of 2014, it already includes 76 states.

The first resolutions, prepared with the participation of the UN Committee on Outer Space, formulated the following principles governing outer space activities:

  • – international law, including the UN Charter, applies to outer space and celestial bodies;
  • - outer space and celestial bodies are available for exploration and use by states in accordance with international law and are not subject to appropriation by states;
  • - States launching vehicles into orbit or beyond are requested to provide information to the UN Committee on Outer Space for registration of launches;

The Secretary-General of the United Nations is requested to keep a public record of information submitted by launching states;

  • – communication by means of satellites should become available to all states on a worldwide basis, excluding discrimination;
  • - the intention expressed by the United States and the USSR not to place in outer space any objects with nuclear weapons or other types of weapons of mass destruction and an appeal to all states to follow this intention and refrain from installing such weapons on celestial bodies or placing such weapons in outer space in some other way.
  • On December 13, 1963, the PLO General Assembly adopted the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (resolution 1962 (XVIII)). It reflects the provisions of previous resolutions and a number of other principles.

The text of this Declaration, which is advisory in nature, formed the basis of the Treaty on the principles of the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, which is legally binding on the States Parties. The treaty was signed on January 27, 1967 in Moscow, Washington and London and entered into force on October 10 of the same year. As of 2014, 103 states are parties to the Treaty.

The adoption of the Outer Space Treaty completed the first stage in the formation of international space law. It has become a new branch of international law, reflecting specific branch principles in this area of ​​international relations:

  • – the exploration and use of outer space is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and is the property of all mankind;
  • - outer space and celestial bodies are open for exploration and use by all states;
  • – outer space and celestial bodies are free for scientific research;
  • – Outer space and celestial bodies are not subject to national appropriation;
  • - outer space and celestial bodies are explored and used in accordance with international law, including the UN Charter, in the interests of maintaining peace and international security and developing international cooperation;
  • - states undertake not to launch into orbit objects with nuclear weapons or other types of weapons of mass destruction;
  • - The moon and other celestial bodies are used exclusively for peaceful purposes;
  • - astronauts are considered to be the messengers of mankind into space;
  • - States bear international responsibility for all national space activities and damage caused by space objects.

To these principles should be added the prohibition of nuclear weapons tests in outer space in accordance with the 1963 Treaty on the Ban on Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water.

Second stage (1968–1979) formation of international space law is characterized by its rapid development. During this period, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1968, the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, 1972, the Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, 1975 ., Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1979

Space activity acquires an economic character. International organizations are being created that testify to the commercialization of space activities: the Agreement on the International Organization of Satellite Telecommunications "Intelsat" in 1971, the Agreement on the Creation of the International System and the Organization of Space Communications "Intersputnik" in 1971, which was revised in 1997, the Convention on the International Maritime Satellite Organization Inmarsat 1976, which was revised in 1996, European Space Agency 1975

In 1968, the first UN World Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE-1) is held in Vienna.

Space activities have been an integral part of the development of weapons from the very beginning. Work is underway to create strike satellite systems and anti-satellite weapons. In 1977, the Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Management Tools is concluded, which, in particular, contains an obligation not to resort to military or any other hostile use of environmental management tools that have wide, long-term or serious consequences, as means of destruction, damage or injury. The concept of "means of influencing the natural environment" refers to the deliberate manipulation of natural processes to change the dynamics, composition or structure of the Earth or outer space.

At this stage, the successful rule-making activities of the UN Committee on Outer Space are completed, since due to contradictions between various groups of states, it is not possible to develop legally binding acts.

However, on third stage (1980-1996) important resolutions of the UN General Assembly are adopted, containing declarations of a recommendatory nature, but of great moral and political significance. Approved the Principles for the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982), the Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986), the Principles Relating to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (1992) and the Declaration on International Cooperation in Research adopted and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, with Particular Consideration for the Needs of Developing Countries (1996).

In the third stage, the struggle to prevent the military use of outer space continued. In 1981, the USSR submitted to the UN a draft Treaty on the Prohibition of the Placement of Weapons of Any Kind in Outer Space, and in 1983, a draft Treaty on the Prohibition of the Use of Force in Outer Space and from Outer Space against the Earth. Both drafts were submitted to the Conference on Disarmament, but were not discussed in substance.

In 1987, the Guidelines on the Transfer of Sensitive Missile-Related Equipment and Technology (MTCR) were adopted. The MTCR regime currently unites more than 30 states, including the United States and Russia. The MTCR regime is a gentlemen's agreement "on unilateral restraint" in the transfer of ballistic missiles and their technologies to third countries.

In 1982, Vienna hosted the second UN World Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space UNISPACE-P, the main outcome of which was the expansion of the UN Program on Space Applications.

The emergence of international space law as an independent is closely related to the beginning of practical research and exploration of outer space. Within days of the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite on October 4, 1957, the UN General Assembly, in resolution 1148 (XII), called for the joint study of "a system of inspection to ensure that the launching of objects into outer space will be carried out exclusively for peaceful and scientific purposes. ". In 1958, the UN General Assembly creates an ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and entrusts it with the study of "the nature of the legal problems that may arise in the conduct of space exploration programs." These resolutions, supplemented by several other resolutions of the General Assembly, laid the foundation for international law governing outer space activities and determined its general character and form.

Key principles of international space law were originally conceived and proposed by publicists in the legal doctrine. An analysis of the early ideas of various authors regarding the legal regulation of space activities reveals their common characteristic, namely that outer space and celestial bodies should be free for exploration and use by all states in accordance with the general principles of international law, including the UN Charter, and not subject to appropriation by states. Thus, proclaiming freedom of exploration and use, as opposed to the creation of new zones of sovereignty, it was stated that outer space should serve the interests of all mankind.

Outer space is a unique and essentially new field of human activity. The nature and physical characteristics of outer space are such that activities are predominantly international in nature. While international relations are governed by international law, a number of specific norms and principles have been formed that regulate the activities of states in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies.

Development of international space law.

The United Nations has played and continues to play a primary role in the development of international space law, in particular through the adoption of General Assembly resolutions. It is immaterial whether these resolutions are binding or merely recommendations open to full discussion.

Before the first launch of a space satellite, the closest analogy to outer space was the high seas - a territory that belongs to everyone, ( res communis). After the launch of the first Soviet and American satellites, the UN General Assembly, as part of the work of COPUOS, began to study the legal problems that may arise in the implementation of space activities. In resolution 1472 (XIV) of December 12, 1959, the General Assembly recognized as a fundamental basis in space exploration the orientation only for the benefit of all mankind and noted the importance of taking into account the interests of all States "regardless of their level of economic or scientific development" in the conduct of research and use outer space. The need to promote international cooperation was also emphasized.

The next important resolution of the General Assembly - resolution 1721, adopted unanimously in December 1961, was a kind of guide for the further development of international space law. In addition to the above principles, the General Assembly approved a new guiding principle that "outer space and celestial bodies are available for exploration and use by all States in accordance with international law and shall not be subject to appropriation by States." These principles were set out in more detail in Resolution 1962, adopted unanimously and entitled "Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space." The following were solemnly proclaimed international space law guidelines:

  1. The exploration and use of outer space is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all mankind.
  2. Outer space and celestial bodies are open for exploration and use by all states on the basis of equality and in accordance with international law.
  3. Outer space and celestial bodies are not subject to national appropriation.
  4. The activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space must be carried out in accordance with international law, including the UN Charter.
  5. States bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, the responsibility lies either with the state or with the international organization and the states participating in it. The activities of national authorities in outer space must be carried out under the constant supervision of the respective state.
  6. In the exploration and use of outer space, states carry out all their activities with due regard for the respective interests of other states. If an activity in outer space or a planned experiment could potentially cause damage to other states, then international consultations should be held beforehand.
  7. The State in whose registry an object launched into outer space is entered shall retain jurisdiction and control over such an object and over any crew on board while they are in outer space.
  8. Each state that carries out or ensures the launch of an object into outer space shall bear international responsibility for the damage caused to a foreign state by such an object or its ground components in air or outer space.
  9. States consider cosmonauts as messengers of humanity into space and provide them with all possible assistance. Astronauts, in the event of a forced landing on the territory of a foreign state, immediately return to the state in which their spacecraft is registered.

All subsequent treaties relating to international space law incorporate most of the principles enshrined in this Declaration.

Modern legal position.

COPUOS and its two subcommittees, Scientific and Technical and Legal, have prepared five international treaties governing activities in outer space. All of them were adopted by consensus.

Space treaty.

The Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 19 December 1966, commonly referred to as the Outer Space Treaty, is considered the cornerstone of international space law. The Treaty contains a number of fundamental principles that establish the basic legal framework for the activities of states in outer space. However, considering the treaty as the legal basis for space activities, many respected space lawyers note the lack of proper precision and certainty in the use of terms. This lack of legal clarity has in some cases been the result of deliberate omission. Despite such criticism, the Outer Space Treaty is the most important source of international space law. All activities of states in the field of exploration and use of outer space are subject to its broad parameters. It should also be borne in mind that, as its name suggests, it is a treaty of principles and is considered the legal basis upon which more specific agreements can be developed.

Rescue and Return Agreement.

The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space of April 22, 1968, as its name suggests, provides for the immediate adoption of all measures to rescue astronauts and provide them with the necessary assistance in the event of an accident, distress, forced or unintentional landing. Most States agreed that astronauts in need of assistance should be treated with special care and facilitated for their speedy return. To this end, the states have agreed to consider astronauts as envoys of humanity. This attitude towards astronauts reflects the spirit of international cooperation and mutual assistance in the difficult task of space exploration. The agreement also provides for the return of spacecraft or their components at the request of the authorities of the state that carried out the launch.

liability convention.

The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by a Space Object of March 29, 1972, was developed on the basis of the general principles laid down in Articles VI and VII of the Outer Space Treaty, which, respectively, stipulate the international responsibility of States for national activities in outer space and the responsibility for damage caused by a spacecraft or its component part to another state party to the Treaty, its natural or legal person. Its main goal is to develop effective international rules and procedures for "immediate payment of full and fair compensation" to victims of damage caused by a space object. The responsibility of the "launching state" can be either absolute or requiring proof of fault. Absolute liability arises in the event of damage caused by a space object on the surface of the Earth or an aircraft in flight. In the event of damage caused by a space object elsewhere, evidence of the fault of the launching state or persons for whom it is responsible must be provided.

Registration Convention.

The Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space establishes a mandatory system for the registration of space objects launched into the Earth's orbit and beyond. It is based on the voluntary system articulated in UNGA Resolution 1721 and adds more detail to the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty relating to national registries (Articles V and VIII). The Convention obliges the launching state to create a national registry (Article II) and specifies what specific information should be submitted to a centralized public registry (Article IV). This public registry is maintained by the Office for Outer Space Affairs within the United Nations Department of Political Affairs. The Registration Convention is often criticized for its weak wording. Critical information, such as the date and location of launch, changes in orbital parameters after launch, and the date of return of the spacecraft, must be reported "as soon as reasonably practicable" (Article IV). This may take weeks or months. States are not required to disclose the true function of a satellite, but only its "general purpose" (Article IV). So far, there has never been a report of a military launch of a spacecraft. Finally, the marking of space objects, which could provide invaluable assistance in establishing a state bearing international responsibility for damage caused by a space object, is only voluntary (Article V).

Moon agreement.

The Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of December 5, 1979, which entered into force on July 11, 1984, is the last general treaty of international space law. The Moon Treaty is a set of general principles and specific provisions that govern the permitted activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies. It states that its provisions apply not only to the Moon, but also to other celestial bodies in the solar system, "except when specific legal rules come into force in relation to any of these celestial bodies." The Basic Provisions largely reaffirm the fundamental principles of the Outer Space Treaty and expand on its information provisions (Articles 5 and 9) and environmental protection provisions (Article 7). It provides that “it is used ... exclusively for peaceful purposes” (Art. 3.1), and “on the Moon, the threat or use of force or any other hostile act or threat of hostile acts is prohibited” (Art. 3.2).

The most important provision of the Agreement is Art. 11, according to which the Moon and its natural resources should be considered as . This article calls for the establishment of an international regime to regulate the exploitation of resources found on the Moon and other celestial bodies, capable of ensuring the rational use of resources and the fair distribution among all participating States of the benefits derived from these resources. The provisions of the Agreement have a pronounced focus on the internationalization of the Moon and its natural resources, similar in meaning to the international law of the sea. However, the Moon Agreement and its future prospects are full of uncertainties. The legal content of the regime of the common heritage of mankind is still a matter of debate. Some authors see it as a mere statement of position, while others recognize it as an emerging principle of international law. Neither the United States nor Russia seem to be planning to ratify the Moon Agreement.

International Telecommunication Convention.

The convention of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), adopted on November 6, 1982, which regulates the international use of the radio frequency spectrum and the geostationary orbit, reflects the basic principles of international space law. One of the goals of the MEA is to ensure and expand international cooperation in order to improve and rationally use all types of telecommunications (Article 4.1.a). Efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum is achieved by harmonizing and coordinating the actions of the state. With regard to the geostationary orbit, it is proposed to use it efficiently and economically, ensuring equitable access for all Member States. In accordance with Article 33, the geostationary orbit is recognized as a limited natural resource and its use must take into account the special needs of developing States (Article 33.2). This provision clearly demonstrates the changing philosophy of ITU in relation to the issues of regulating the use of such limited resources.

Topical issues of international space law.

The boundary between air and outer space.

The Outer Space Treaty establishes an international legal regime for outer space, which is completely different from the regime of airspace, which is under the sovereignty of the state over whose territory it is located. However, there is no agreement on where the airspace regime ends and outer space begins. There are at least 35 theories about where the boundary between airspace and outer space lies. However, none of these theories has gained general acceptance among jurists or states. Legally, two early schools of thought are most influential: the functionalists, who consider the nature of spacecraft activity rather than the physical location of its activity as a decisive factor, and the spatialists, who traditionally place more emphasis on the recognized territorial sovereignty of states. In 1979, the Soviet Union submitted a working paper to COPUOS, which, among other things, stated that space above 100 (110) km above sea level should be considered outer space. Several countries, including the US and the UK, opposed the initiative, arguing that the demarcation line was unnecessary and would only hinder present and future space activities.

The issue of defining the boundaries of outer space becomes even more confusing given the position of several equatorial states that have stated that the geostationary orbit, due to its dependence on the earth's gravity, should be under the sovereignty of the states over whose territory it is located. This position was strongly rejected. If there were an international agreement establishing the boundary of outer space, the equatorial states might not put forward their demands. While the discussion about delimitation or its necessity continues, the issue takes on a new dimension with the advent of space shuttles, which carry out their mission as spacecraft, but return to Earth, glide through airspace. Solving the boundary problem still seems elusive.

Protection of the space environment.

More than fifteen thousand space objects are tracked in space. The most obvious risks associated with the growing use of outer space are near-Earth congestion, space debris, the harmful effects of rocket fuel on the atmosphere and ionosphere, and the danger of radioactive contamination. The open nature of outer space, as well as the existing problems of pollution of the earth's surface, indicate the need to develop effective legal measures to protect the outer space environment. Space environmental law will have to deal with both space debris and space pollution. It is necessary to develop norms for the removal of inactive satellites and, in general, for the reduction of all space debris. The assembly of orbital stations in outer space further increases the intensity of space traffic. Future space activities should be subject to effective pollution controls, as their negative impacts could affect the entire globe.

Another issue of concern to the international community relates to the risks associated with the use of nuclear power sources (NPS) in outer space. Particular attention to this issue began to be paid after the collapse of the Soviet satellite Kosmos-954 over the Arctic territory of Canada in 1978. This incident drew attention to the long-standing practice of space powers to launch vehicles carrying radioactive materials into outer space without any international control.

According to various estimates, from 25 to 100 NPS-equipped satellites were placed by the United States, Russia and other countries in Earth orbit. There is a need to develop guidelines to ensure the safe use of NPS in outer space. They may contain norms for maximum permissible radioactivity, protection standards, proposals for cooperation between states, requirements for observing space objects and exchanging information.

Commercialization of space activities.

Human activity in space has moved from the stage of scientific research to commercial exploitation. Currently, all states are cutting budget spending. This situation, together with the high costs of future space activities, will require financial assistance from states and governments. The approach to the commercialization of satellite services and the commercial availability of launching into orbit are indicative. Existing norms of international space law must take into account the economic and technical prerequisites that reinforce the growing commercialization of space activities.

It can be confidently expected that the role of private enterprise in space activities will increase significantly both in terms of total volume and in relation to state space activities. The legal basis for such commercial activities by private enterprises requires further clarification.

The militarization of outer space.

The growing danger of the militarization of outer space cannot be underestimated. The outer space treaty provides only for its partial demilitarization. The emergence of new technologies, such as anti-satellite systems, missile defense systems and strategic defense initiatives, require not only clarification of existing regulations, but also the development of new alternative and possibly compromise legal instruments aimed at limiting and reducing such activity.

Prospects for the development of international space law.

It had an impressive start. Existing space law agreements and other instruments provide space activities with a clearer and more secure legal framework than those found in other activities governed by international law. As mentioned above, a number of problems and obstacles are likely to make future international agreements in the field of space law more difficult and less comprehensive. Technological, economic and political issues have and will continue to have a significant impact on the future development of international space law. It can be expected that certain specific areas of space law will become increasingly important and will require the clarification of existing and the creation of new legal norms. The legal vacuum associated with outer space is gradually being filled, but in its development, international space law still has many obstacles to overcome.

international space law- one of the new branches of modern international law, which was formed in the process of exploration of outer space by states and includes norms that regulate international legal relations in relation to the status of outer space as a special, extraterrestrial environment and to the activities of states in the exploration and use of this space.

The exploration and use of outer space serves the interests not only of the state that carries out such activities, but also the global interests of all mankind. International space law can be defined as a set of international legal norms that establish the regime of outer space and celestial bodies and regulate relations, the subjects of which are states, as well as international organizations in connection with the exploration and use of outer space.

The sources of international space law are international treaties and international legal customs. The principles of the UN Charter also apply to space law.

The main source of this industry is the Treaty on Principles for the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, dated January 27, 1967.

Other multilateral treaties that consolidate the main provisions of space law are: the Treaty on the Prohibition of Tests of Nuclear Weapons in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water of August 5, 1963, the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, of 22 April 1968, Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 29 March 1972, Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 14 January 1975, Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Others celestial bodies dated December 18, 1979. On December 30, 1991, the countries that are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States concluded an Agreement on Joint Activities in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, and later created the Interstate Council on Outer Space.

Bilateral agreements on cooperation in outer space are widely used. The Russian Federation has such documents with the USA, China, Mexico, France, Australia and many other countries, as well as with the European Space Agency.

Prior to the conclusion of the 1967 Treaty, the basic rules for space activities had the status of ordinary norms. The norm that defines the boundary between air and outer space at the level of the lower perigees of artificial satellites of the Earth is still a legal custom.

The formation of international space law was greatly influenced by the resolutions of the UN General Assembly, primarily the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activity of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, 1963. Direct Television Broadcasting" and the 1966 resolution "Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, with Particular Consideration for the Needs of Developing Countries".

Significant for the implementation of the norms of international space law is the Law of the Russian Federation "On Space Activities", adopted on August 20, 1993, as amended and supplemented by the Federal Law of November 29, 1996. Section VI of the Law regulates issues of international cooperation.

Legal regime of outer space and celestial bodies

The 1967 Outer Space Treaty contains the fundamental principles of the activities of states in outer space and the norms that directly characterize its legal regime.

The States Parties to the Treaty carry out activities in the exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon. other celestial bodies, in accordance with international law, including the UN Charter, in the interests of maintaining international peace and security, developing international cooperation and mutual understanding (Article 111). Thus, not only territories and spaces on Earth, but also extraterrestrial - outer - space become the sphere of application of international law. This is due to the interests of all states, of all mankind.

The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, regardless of their degree of economic or scientific development, and is the property of all mankind. This means that the results of activities related to the exploration and use of outer space are also the property of all mankind. The agreement on the activities of states on the moon and other celestial bodies establishes that the moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind.

The content of the concept of "common heritage of mankind" in the context of the content of international norms allows us to conclude that space and celestial bodies cannot be considered as a "common thing" or "common property" of mankind. They are only in his general use. Arbitrary appropriation of objects that have the status of the common heritage of mankind is unacceptable. Such facilities should be used in an equitable and rational manner. The concept of a common "heritage of mankind" is designed to ensure the equality of all states in the use of these objects.

In relation to the Moon and other celestial bodies, the common heritage of mankind is not only the celestial bodies themselves, but also their resources, both unmined and mined. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty secured the provision that “outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation, either by declaring sovereignty over them, or by use or occupation, or by any other means” (Art. II) . The same provision is found in Art. 11 Agreements on the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies. Freedom of scientific research is proclaimed on the Moon, carried out with due regard for equality by all parties to the Moon Agreement, without discrimination of any kind. States have the right to collect samples of mineral and other substances on the Moon, to remove them from the Moon, and also to dispose of them, taking into account the desirability of placing some of such samples at the disposal of other parties to the Agreement, which should not be considered as national appropriation. In this regard, it is said: "The surface or interior of the Moon, as well as parts of its surface or interior, or natural resources, where they are, cannot be the property of any state, international intergovernmental or non-governmental organization, national organization or non-governmental institution, or any physical person."

At the same time, the participating States undertake to establish an international regime to regulate the exploitation of the natural resources of the Moon when it becomes clear that such exploitation is possible. The objectives of this regime, in particular, will be: the orderly and safe development of the natural resources of the Moon, their rational regulation, "a fair distribution among all participating States of the benefits derived from these resources, with particular regard to the interests and needs of developing countries, as well as the efforts of those countries who directly or indirectly contributed to the exploration of the moon."

The issue of the boundary between airspace and outer space has not been settled by treaty. A customary legal norm has developed, according to which this boundary passes at the height of the minimum perigees of the orbits of artificial Earth satellites, that is, at an altitude of 100-110 km above sea level. The above-ground space at the level and above the limits of the minimum low orbits of satellites is not subject to the sovereignty of the states located under this space and is considered open space.

Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is open for exploration and use by all states without any discrimination, on the basis of equality, with free access to all areas of celestial bodies. The principle of freedom of exploration and use of outer space and celestial bodies also embraces scientific research. An important element of space law is the principle of partial demilitarization of outer space and complete demilitarization of celestial bodies.

This means that the States Parties to the Treaty undertake not to place any objects with nuclear weapons or any other types of weapons of mass destruction into orbit around the Earth, not to install such weapons on celestial bodies or to place them in outer space in any other way. It follows that outer space is partially (with respect to weapons of mass destruction) demilitarized.

The Moon and other celestial bodies are used exclusively for peaceful purposes: the creation of military bases, structures and fortifications, the testing of any types of weapons and the conduct of military maneuvers are prohibited. Consequently, a complete demilitarization regime has been established on the Moon and other celestial bodies. The Agreement on the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of December 18, 1979 established additional restrictions on the military activities of states: on the Moon, the threat or use of force, any other hostile actions or the threat of their commission are prohibited; It is also prohibited to use the Moon to commit any such act or to use any such threat against the Earth, spacecraft, their personnel or artificial space objects. Military personnel may be used on the Moon for scientific research or any other peaceful purposes.

Restrictions on military activities in outer space and on celestial bodies are also provided for in other international acts, in particular, in the Treaty on the Ban on Nuclear Weapons Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water.

The principle of international space law is to promote international cooperation in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space. In this regard, the parties to the 1967 Treaty undertake to inform the UN Secretary-General, as well as the public and the international scientific community, to the maximum extent possible and practicable, about the nature, course, places and results of space activities.

The principles of space law also include the prevention of harmful pollution of space, as well as adverse changes in the earth's environment due to the delivery of extraterrestrial matter. If a state party to the Treaty has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by it or its citizens will create potentially harmful interference with the activities of other parties to the Treaty in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, then it is obliged to conduct the necessary international consultations. Such consultations may be requested by any other parties to the Treaty. States bear international responsibility for their activities in outer space, regardless of whether they are carried out by governmental bodies or by non-governmental legal entities. In addition, States are responsible for ensuring that their national activities are carried out in strict accordance with the provisions of the Treaty. Activities in outer space of non-governmental legal entities should be carried out with the permission of the respective State Party to the Treaty and under its constant supervision. In the case of activities in outer space of an international organization, both the organization itself and the states participating in it bear responsibility for the implementation of the Treaty.

Legal regime of space objects

Space objects are understood as artificial bodies that are created by humans and launched into space. Such objects include their components and means of delivery. A variety of space objects are spaceships - vehicles designed for people and cargo. Space objects are launched into outer space or onto celestial bodies to collect and transmit information. They also serve the purposes of production processes, transportation of goods. Space objects may belong to one or more states, a non-governmental legal entity, an international intergovernmental organization.

According to the Convention on the Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, such registration is mandatory for its participants. A State that has launched a space object into an orbit around the Earth or further into outer space shall register it by recording it in an appropriate register, which must be maintained by that State. It also determines the content of the register and the conditions for its maintenance.

The State launching or organizing the launch of a space object informs the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the establishment of such a register, who, in turn, maintains the Register, in which information provided by the state of registration is entered. The state in whose register an object is entered retains jurisdiction and control over it and over any crew of this object during their stay in outer space, including on a celestial body. The right of ownership extends both to space objects launched into outer space, including objects delivered or built on a celestial body, and to their constituent parts.

International space law contains rules for finding space objects on natural celestial bodies, in particular, on the Moon. States may land their space objects on the Moon and launch them from the Moon, place their personnel, space vehicles, equipment, installations, stations and structures anywhere on the surface of the Moon and its interior. Personnel and these space objects can move freely on the surface of the Moon and in its depths. Such actions should not, however, interfere with the activities on the Moon of other states.

States may also establish manned and unmanned stations on the Moon, informing the UN Secretary General of their location and purpose. Stations should be located in such a way as not to interfere with the free access of personnel, vehicles and equipment of other states to all regions of the Moon. Placement on the surface of the Moon or in its subsoil of personnel, spacecraft, equipment, stations, structures does not create ownership rights to the surface or subsoil of the Moon. In order for each State Party to make sure that the other States Parties act in accordance with the 1979 Moon Agreement, all spacecraft, equipment, installations, stations and structures on the Moon are open to control.

A number of norms of international space law govern the issue of the return of space objects. The 1967 Treaty on Outer Space establishes a rule according to which, if such objects or their components, upon return to Earth, are found outside the borders of the state party to the Treaty that entered them in its register, then they must be returned to this state. This issue is resolved in more detail in the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. Each State that receives information or discovers that a space object or its constituent parts, upon return to Earth, has ended up in territory under its jurisdiction, or on the high seas, or in any other place not under the jurisdiction of any State, is obliged inform the launching authorities and the UN Secretary General. At the request of the authorities that carried out the launch, the state on whose territory a space object was discovered takes measures to save this object and return it. The authorities that carried out the launch are obliged to take effective measures to eliminate the possible danger of causing harm even if the state that has discovered a space object on its territory or in any other place has reason to consider this object dangerous or harmful in terms of its characteristics. The term "launching authorities" refers to both the launching States and international intergovernmental organizations.

States and intergovernmental organizations, when launching objects into space, are obliged to take precautionary measures to prevent a threat to the life and health of individuals, destruction or damage to the property of states, their individuals or legal entities, or international organizations. However, the possibility of damage remains. In order to regulate this issue, the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects was adopted. It establishes the principle of absolute responsibility of the launching State for the payment of compensation for damage caused by its space object on the Earth's surface or to an aircraft in flight. If, however, damage is caused to a space object or to persons or property on board at any place outside the surface of the Earth, the launching State is liable only if the damage is caused through its fault or through the fault of persons for whom it is responsible.

A claim for compensation for such damage may be made to the launching state by the state that has suffered damage or damage to its natural or legal persons. If the launch of a space object is carried out by two (or more) states jointly, then they bear joint and several liability for the damage caused. In this regard, the launching state, which has paid compensation for damage, has the right to present a recourse claim against the other participants in the joint launch.

Thus, liability for activities in outer space is a type of international liability. States are its subjects. It is the state that is responsible for the space activities not only of state institutions, but also of individuals and legal entities under its jurisdiction.

The grounds for liability are:

  • Firstly, the space activity of a state, which complies with international law, but which caused harm to another state. It is the responsibility for lawful activities that have led to adverse consequences on Earth;
  • secondly, the space activity of the state, which caused harm as a result of violation of international law. If a state encroaches on the foundations of the international legal order in outer space, harms other states with its activities, then it commits an international offense.

Diplomatic means are used to make a claim for compensation for damages, but if diplomatic negotiations do not lead to a settlement of the claim, then, at the request of any of the interested parties, a Claims Review Board is established, which determines the validity of the claim for compensation and, if recognized, determines the amount of compensation. The decision of the Commission is final and binding if the parties have agreed on it in advance. Otherwise, the Commission shall issue a ruling that is advisory in nature.

Space crews

International space law treats astronauts as messengers of mankind into space. The 1967 Treaty on Outer Space obliges its participants to provide cosmonauts with all possible assistance in the event of an accident, disaster or forced landing on the territory of another state or on the high seas. Astronauts making such an emergency landing must be provided with safety. They are immediately returned to the state in whose register their spacecraft is entered. Being in outer space, including on celestial bodies, cosmonauts of one state party to the Treaty render possible assistance to cosmonauts of other states. Persons in distress on the Moon shall be granted the right of shelter at stations, structures, apparatuses and other installations of the states-participants of the Agreement on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.

If an accident or disaster, forced or unintentional landing of the crew of a spacecraft has led to a landing in the territory under the jurisdiction of any state, then it must take all possible measures to save the crew and provide them with the necessary assistance. The authorities that carried out the launch may also participate in search and rescue operations for astronauts. Such actions are taken on the basis of the cooperation of the parties under the direction and control of the state exercising jurisdiction over the territory where search and rescue operations are being conducted.

Legal forms of cooperation between states in outer space

According to Art. IX of the Treaty of 1967, in the exploration and use of outer space, its participants must be guided by the principle of cooperation and mutual assistance with due regard for each other's respective interests. In particular, this is manifested in the obligation not to allow potentially harmful interference with the activities of other states, to consider their requests on an equal footing to provide them with the opportunity to observe the flight of space objects, to provide possible assistance to astronauts of other states, etc. International treaties, both bilateral, and multilateral, such specific forms of cooperation as the study of outer space, space meteorology, space communications, space biology and medicine are regulated. Mixed working groups are being created for each of the areas of cooperation.

A number of treaties provide for joint experiments, the creation of optical observation stations for artificial earth satellites, and the implementation of joint manned flights.

The agreement on joint activities in the exploration and use of outer space, signed by the CIS states on December 30, 1991, consolidated the important principles of cooperation: joining forces for the effective exploration and use of outer space in the interests of the national economy and science, as well as the defense capability and ensuring the collective security of the member states Commonwealth; confirmation of the need for strict observance of the international obligations previously assumed by the USSR in the field of exploration and use of outer space; implementation of joint activities in the field of outer space on the basis of interstate programs, financing of these programs at the expense of equity contributions of the states-participants of the Agreement; coordination of efforts to solve international legal problems of exploration and use of outer space.

According to the Law of the Russian Federation "On Space Activities", Russia promotes the development of international cooperation, as well as the maintenance of peace and international security by using the achievements of space science and technology. With regard to foreign citizens carrying out space activities under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation, it is provided that they enjoy the legal regime established for organizations and citizens of the Russian Federation, to the extent that such a regime is provided by the relevant state to organizations and citizens of the Russian Federation. Organizations and citizens of the Russian Federation participating in the implementation of international projects conclude agreements with foreign organizations and citizens in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, unless otherwise provided by these agreements. Space activities prohibited by international treaties of the Russian Federation are not allowed. / The widest cooperation on space issues. carried out in international organizations. The UN is called upon to consider the most general, predominantly political in their significance, issues related to the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes. Thus, the UN General Assembly in 1986 formulated the principles relating to remote sensing of the Earth from space.

The UN General Assembly determines the tasks of developing the legal problems of outer space, approves draft agreements on outer space developed by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and resolves a number of other issues.

A significant role in the development of international cooperation in outer space is played by many UN specialized agencies. Thus, the International Telecommunication Union is developing regulations that allocate radio frequency bands for space communications; The use of artificial satellites in meteorology is handled by the World Meteorological Organization.

There are also international intergovernmental organizations that have been created specifically for cooperation on space issues. These include, in particular, the International Organization for Maritime Satellite Communications (INMARSAT), the International Organization for Space Communications Intersputnik, and the International Organization for Communications via Artificial Earth Satellites (INTELSAT).

INMARSAT is designed to provide the space segment needed to improve maritime communications and thereby help improve communications for distress and safety of life at sea.

Intersputnik coordinates the efforts of member states to design, create, operate and develop a communication system via artificial earth satellites.

The goals of INTELSAT are the commercial design, construction, operation and maintenance of a global system of international satellite communications.

Literature

  • Vasilevskaya E. G. Legal status of natural resources of the Moon and planets. M., 1978.
  • Vereshchetin V.S. International space law and domestic law: problems of interconnection // Sov. state and law. 1981. No. 12.
  • Vereshchetin V.S. International cooperation in space: legal issues. M., 1977.
  • Kamenetskaya E.P. Space and international organizations: international legal problems. M., 1980.
  • Kolosov Yu. M., Stashevsky S. G. Struggle for Peaceful Space: Legal Issues. M., 1984.
  • International space law / Ed. ed. A.S. Piradov. M., 1985.
  • Postyshev V. M. The concept of the common heritage of mankind in relation to the Moon and its natural resources // Sov. yearbook of international law. 1987. M., 1988.
  • Legal problems of human space flights // Otv. ed. V.S. Vereshchetin. M., 1986.
  • Rudev A. I. International legal status of space stations. M, 1982.
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