New Year according to the Roman calendar. Summary: Roman calendar. An excerpt characterizing the Roman calendar

History has not kept us accurate information about the time of the birth of the Roman calendar. However, it is known that during the time of Romulus (mid-VIII century BC), the Romans used the lunar calendar, which was at odds with the actual astronomical cycle on Earth. The year began in March and consisted of only 10 months (contained 304 days). Initially, the months did not have names and were designated by serial numbers.

In the 7th century BC e., i.e. during the time of the second legendary ancient Roman king - Numa Pompilius, the Roman calendar was reformed and two more months were added to the calendar year. The months of the Roman calendar had the following names:

lat. title	note
Martius	March - in honor of the god of war Mars, father of Romulus and Remus
Aprilis	April - possibly from lat. aperire (to open), because this month in Italy the buds open on the trees; variant - apricus (warmed by the sun)
Majus	May - the name of the month goes back to the Italian goddess of the earth and fertility, the nymph of the mountains, the mother of Mercury - Maya
Junius	June - named after the goddess Juno, wife of Jupiter, patroness of women and marriage, who gives rain and harvest, success and victory
Quintilis, later Julius	fifth, from 44 BC e. - July, in honor of Julius Caesar
Sextilis, later Augustus	sixth; from 8 AD e. - August, in honor of the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus
September	september - seventh
October	October - eighth
October	November - ninth
December	December - tenth
Januarius	January - in honor of the two-faced god Janus, whose one face was turned forward and the other backward: he could simultaneously contemplate the past and foresee the future
Februarius	February - the month of purifications (Latin februare - to cleanse); associated with the rite of purification, celebrated annually on February 15; this month was dedicated to the god of the underworld, Februus.

The names of the months were adjectival definitions for the word mensis - month, for example, mensis Martius, mensis December.

Julian calendar.

The chaotic nature of the Roman calendar created such great inconvenience that its urgent reform turned into an acute social problem. Such a reform was carried out over two thousand years ago, in 46 BC. e. It was initiated by the Roman statesman and commander Julius Caesar. He entrusted the creation of a new calendar to a group of Alexandrian astronomers headed by Sosigenes.

The essence of the reform was that the calendar was based on the annual movement of the Sun between the stars. The average length of the year was set at 365.25 days, which exactly corresponded to the length of the tropical year known at that time. But so that the beginning of the calendar year always falls on the same date, as well as at the same time of day, they decided to count 365 days in each year for three years, and 366 in the fourth. This last year was called a leap year.

Sosigene divided the year into 12 months, for which he retained their ancient names. The year began on January 1st. This coincided with the beginning of the Roman economic year and with the entry into office of new consuls. At the same time, the duration of the months was established, which exists at the present time.

After the death of Julius Caesar, the fifth month of Quintilis was named Iulius (July) in his honor, and in 8 AD. Sextilis was named after the Emperor Augustus.

The account according to the new calendar, called the Julian, began on January 1, 45 BC. e. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII amended the Julian calendar, according to which the year began 13 days earlier. It has been accepted all over the world. In Russia, the "new style" was introduced in 1918. The Russian Orthodox Church still uses the Julian calendar.

Counting days in months. The Roman calendar did not know the ordinal count of days in a month. The account was kept by the number of days up to three specific moments within each month: calends, non and id. The designation by the Romans of the numbers of the month was based on the allocation of three main days in it, originally associated with the change of the phases of the moon.

new moon day(1st day of the month) was called kalends (Kalendae, abbr. Kal.). Initially, the high priest announced its approach (from the Latin calare - to convene; zd.: to announce the new moon). The whole calculation system during the year was called Kalendarium (hence the calendar), the debt book was also called, since interest was paid during the calendars.

full moon day(13th or 15th day of the month) was called ides (Idus, abbr. Id.). According to the etymology of the Roman scientist Varro - from the Etruscan iduare - to divide, i.e. The month was divided in half.

Day of the first quarter of the moon ( 5th or 7th day of the month) was called Nones (Nonae, abbr. Non.). From the ordinal numeral nonus - the ninth, because it was the 9th day until the next milestone in the month.

In March, May, July, October, the ides fell on the 15th, nones on the 7th, and in the rest of the months, the ides on the 13th, and nones on the 5th.

Dates were indicated by counting from these three main days of the month, including both this day and the day of the date indicated: ante diem tertium Kalendas Septembres - three days before the September calendars (i.e. August 30), ante diem quartum Idus Martias - after four days before the Ides of March (i.e. March 12).

Leap year. The expression " leap year"Associated with the origin of the Julian calendar and the peculiar counting of days used by the ancient Romans. During the reform of the calendar, February 24 was repeated twice, that is, after the sixth day before the March kalends, and was called ante diem bis sextum Kelendas Martium - on the repeated sixth day before the March kalends.

A year with an extra day was called bi(s)sextilis - with a repeated sixth day. In Latin, the sixth number is called "sextus", and "once again the sixth" is called "bissextus". Therefore, the year containing an extra day in February was called "bissextilis". The Russians, having heard this word from the Byzantine Greeks, who pronounced "b" as "v", turned it into "high-rise".

Days of the week. The seven-day week in Rome appeared in the 1st century. AD under the influence of the Ancient East. Christians introduced a regular holiday after every 6 working days. In 321, Emperor Constantine the Great legislated this form of the week.

The Romans named the days of the week according to the seven luminaries then known, which bore the names of the gods. Latin names, having changed, are partly preserved to this day in the names of the days of the week in many European languages.

Russian	Latin	French	English	Deutsch
Monday	Lunae dies	lundi	Monday	Montag
Tuesday	martis dies	mardi	Tuesday	Dienstag
Wednesday	Mercuri dies	mercredi	Wednesday	Mittwoch
Thursday	Jovis dies	Jeudi	Thursday	Donnerstag
Friday	Veneris dies	vendredi	Friday	Freitag
Saturday	Saturni dies	samedi	Saturday	sonnabend
Sunday	Solis dies	dimanche	Sunday	Sonntag

In the Slavic names of the days of the week (through the Greek Orthodox Church), the designation was adopted by their numbers. In the Romance languages, the tradition of naming the days of the week after the names of pagan gods (despite the stubborn struggle of the Christian church) has survived to this day. In the Germanic languages, the names of the Roman deities were replaced by the corresponding Germanic ones. The Roman god of war Mars in German mythology corresponds to Tiu, the god of trade Mercury - Wodan, the supreme deity of the sky and thunderstorms Jupiter - Donar (Thor), the goddess of love Venus - Freya. The name "Saturday" is a modified Hebrew word sabbaton (shabbaton) - rest. Sunday the first Christians celebrated as "the day of the Lord", that is, the day of the resurrection of Jesus Christ.

chronology. In the first centuries of its existence, the dating of events in Rome was carried out by the names of the consuls, who were elected two per year. Thanks to the thoroughness of the historical recording of the names of the consuls and their constant use in historical writings and documents, we know the names of the consuls, starting with Brutus (509 BC) and ending with Basilius (541 AD), i.e. . for over 1000 years!

The year was designated by the names of the two consuls of a given year, the names were put in the ablative, for example: Marco Crasso et Gnaeo Pompejo consulibus - to the consulate of Mark Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey (55 BC).

From the era of Augustus (from 16 BC), along with dating according to the consuls, the chronology from the alleged year of the founding of Rome (753 BC) comes into use: ab Urbe condita - from the foundation of the city, abbr. . ab U.c. An abbreviation was placed before the year number, for example, 2009 of the Gregorian calendar corresponds to 2762 of the Roman era.

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Calendar

1. 1st day of each month - kalends ( Kalendae or Calendae, abbr. Kal., Cal.); originally the first day of the new moon, which is announced by the high priest (from the Latin verb Calare- to convene, in this case to announce the new moon).
2. 13th or 15th day of the month - ides ( Idus, abbr. Id.); originally in the lunar month, the middle of the month, the day of the full moon (according to the etymology of the Roman scientist Varro - from the Etruscan iduare- share).
3. 5th or 7th day of the month - nones ( Nonae, abbr. Non.), the day of the first quarter of the moon (from the ordinal number nonus- the ninth, 9th day before the ides, counting the day of non and id).

In March, May, July, October, the ides fell on the 15th, nones on the 7th, and in the rest of the months, the ides on the 13th, and nones on the 5th. In history, for example, the Ides of March are known - March 15, 44 BC. e., the day of the assassination of Julius Caesar: Idus Martiae.

The names of these days (calends, nones, ides) when designating the date were put in the ablative tense ( ablativus temporis): Idibus Martiis- on the Ides of March, Kalendis Januariis- January kalends, that is, January 1.

The days immediately preceding the Kalends, Nones, or Ides were denoted by the word pridie- the day before (in wine case): pridie Idus Decembres- on the eve of the Ides of December, that is, December 12th.

The remaining days were designated by indicating the number of days remaining until the next main day; at the same time, the bill also included the day that was indicated, and the next main day (cf. in Russian “the third day” - the day before yesterday): ante diem octavum Kalendas Apriles - eight days before the April kalends, that is, March 25, usually abbreviated a. d. VIII Kal. Apr.

The review of the year was called calendarium(hence the calendar), the debt book was also called, since interest was paid during calends.

Designations of the days of the month (before 45 BC)

Day	Months of 29 days	Month of 28 days	Months from the 31st day	Numbering (on the example of May)
	January, April, June, sextile (August), September, November, December	February	March, May, quintile (July), October	short form	Full form
1	Kalendae			Kal. Mai.	Kalendis Maiis
2	IV		VI	a. d. VI Non. Mai.	ante diem VI (sextum) Nonas Maias
3	III		V	a. d. V Non. Mai.	ante diem V (quintum) Nonas Maias
4	pridie		IV	a. d. IV Non. Mai.	ante diem IV (quartum) Nonas Maias
5	nonae		III	a. d. III Non. Mai.	ante diem III (tertium) Nonas Maias
6	VIII		pridie	prid. Non. Mai.	pridie Nonas Maias
7	VII		nonae	Non. Mai.	Nonis Maiis
8	VI		VIII	a. d. VIII ID. Mai.	ante diem VIII (octavum) Idus Maias
9	V		VII	a. d. VII ID. Mai.	ante diem VII (septimum) Idus Maias
10	IV		VI	a. d. VI Id. Mai.	ante diem VI (sextum) Idus Maias
11	III		V	a. d. V Id. Mai.	ante diem V (quintum) Idus Maias
12	pridie		IV	a. d. IV ID. Mai.	ante diem IV (quartum) Idus Maias
13	idus		III	a. d. III ID. Mai.	ante diem III (tertium) Idus Maias
14	XVII	X	pridie	prid. Id. Mai.	pridie Idus Maias
15	XVI	IX	idus	Id. Mai.	Idibus Maiis
16	XV	VIII	XVII	a. d. XVII Kal. Jun.	ante diem XVII (septimum decimum) Kalendas Iunias
17	XIV	VII	XVI	a. d. XVI Kal. Jun.	ante diem XVI (sextum decimum) Kalendas Iunias
18	XIII	VI	XV	a. d. XV Kal. Jun.	ante diem XV (quintum decimum) Kalendas Iunias
19	XII	V	XIV	a. d. XIV Kal. Jun.	ante diem XIV (quartum decimum) Kalendas Iunias
20	XI	IV	XIII	a. d. XIII Kal. Jun.	ante diem XIII (tertium decimum) Kalendas Iunias
21	X	III	XII	a. d. XII Kal. Jun.	ante diem XII (duodecimum) Kalendas Iunias
22	IX	pridie	XI	a. d. XI Kal. Jun.	ante diem XI (undecimum) Kalendas Iunias
23	VIII	terminalia	X	a. d. X Kal. Jun.	ante diem X (decimum) Kalendas Iunias
24	VII	VI	IX	a. d. IX Kal. Jun.	ante diem IX (nonum) Kalendas Iunias
25	VI	V	VIII	a. d. VIII Kal. Jun.	ante diem VIII (octavum) Kalendas Iunias
26	V	IV	VII	a. d. VII Kal. Jun.	ante diem VII (septimum) Kalendas Iunias
27	IV	III	VI	a. d. VI Kal. Jun.	ante diem VI (sixtmum) Kalendas Iunias
28	III	pridie	V	a. d. V Kal. Jun.	ante diem V (quintum) Kalendas Iunias
29	pridie		IV	a. d. IV Kal. Jun.	ante diem IV (quartum) Kalendas Iunias
30			III	a. d. III Kal. Jun.	ante diem III (tertium) Kalendas Iunias
31			pridie	prid. Kal. Jun.	pridie Kalendas Iunias

A week

The Romans originally used eight-day weeks [ ] - nundines (lat. nundinae), in which the days were denoted by letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. The division of the month into seven-day weeks, which arose in the Ancient East, in the 1st century BC. e. began to be used in Rome, from where it later spread throughout Europe.

In the seven-day week borrowed by the Romans, only one day had a special name - “Saturday” (heb. sabbath- rest, rest), the rest of the days were called serial numbers in the week: first, second, etc.; cf. in Russian Monday, Tuesday, etc., where "week" meant originally a non-working day (from "not to do"). The Romans named the days of the week after the seven luminaries, which bore the names of the gods. The names are as follows: Saturday - the day of Saturn, then - the day of the Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus.

Latin names, having changed, are partly still preserved in the names of the days of the week in Western Europe. In China, as well as Japan and other countries traditionally influenced by China, the same planets are adopted for designating the days of the week as in the Roman tradition, but their national names are used, associated with elements of traditional Chinese alchemy.

Russian	Latin	French	English	Deutsch	Finnish	Japanese	Chinese
Monday	Lunae dies	lundi	Monday	Montag	Maanantai	月曜日 Getsuyo:bi	月曜日 yueyaozhy
Tuesday	martis dies	mardi	Tuesday	Dienstag	Tiistai	火曜日 Kayo:bi	火曜日 hoyaozhy
Wednesday	Mercuri dies	mercredi	Wednesday	Mittwoch	Keskiviikko	水曜日 Suyo:bi	水曜日 Shuyaozhy
Thursday	Jovis dies	Jeudi	Thursday	Donnerstag	Torstai	木曜日 Mokuyo:bi	木曜日 muyaozhi
Friday	Veneris dies	vendredi	Friday	Freitag	Perjantai	金曜日 Kin "yo: bi	金曜日 jingyaozhi
Saturday	Saturni dies	samedi	Saturday	Samstag, sonnabend	Lauantai	土曜日 Doyo:bi	土曜日 tuyaozhy
Sunday	Solis dies	dimanche	Sunday	Sonntag	Sunnuntai	日曜日 Nichiyo:bi	日曜日 zhiyaozhy

Clock

The division of the day into hours has come into use since the advent of the sundial in Rome (lat. horologium solarium) in 291 BC. e. ; in 164 BC. e. Rome introduced a water clock (lat. solarium ex aqua). The day, like the night, was divided into 12 hours. At different times of the year, the duration of one hour of the day and one hour of the night changed. Day is the time from sunrise to sunset, night is from sunset to sunrise. On the equinox day was considered from 6 o'clock in the morning to 6 o'clock in the evening, night - from 6 o'clock in the evening to 6 o'clock in the morning. For example: hora quarta diei- at the fourth hour of the day, that is, at 10 o'clock in the morning, 4 hours later after 6 o'clock in the morning.

The night was divided into 4 watches of 3 hours each: prima vigilia- first guard secunda vigilia- second guard tertia vigilia- third guard and qvarta vigilia- the fourth guard.

chronology

The Romans kept lists of consuls (lat. fasti consulares). Consuls were elected annually, two per year. The year was designated by the names of the two consuls of a given year, the names were put in the ablative, for example: Marcus Crassus et Gnaeus Pompeius consulibus - to the consulate of Mark Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey (55 BC).

From the era of Augustus (from 16 BC), along with dating by consuls, the chronology from the alleged year of the founding of Rome (753 BC) comes into use: ab Urbe condita- from the founding of the city, abbr. ab U.c., a. u. c.

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Notes

Links

• Roman calendar / // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

An excerpt characterizing the Roman calendar

Despite the large number of swallowed pills, drops and powders from jars and boxes, from which madame Schoss, the hunter for these gizmos, gathered a large collection, despite the absence of the usual village life, youth took its toll: Natasha's grief began to be covered with a layer of impressions of her life, it such excruciating pain ceased to lie on her heart, it began to become past, and Natasha began to recover physically.

Natasha was calmer, but not more cheerful. She not only avoided all external conditions of joy: balls, skating, concerts, theater; but she never laughed so that her tears were not heard because of her laughter. She couldn't sing. As soon as she began to laugh or tried to sing alone with herself, tears choked her: tears of repentance, tears of memories of that irrevocable, pure time; tears of annoyance that so, for nothing, she ruined her young life, which could have been so happy. Laughter and singing especially seemed to her a blasphemy against her grief. She never thought of coquetry; she didn't even have to refrain. She said and felt that at that time all men were to her exactly the same as the jester Nastasya Ivanovna. The inner guard firmly forbade her any joy. And she did not have all the former interests of life from that girlish, carefree, hopeful way of life. More often and most painfully, she recalled the autumn months, the hunt, her uncle, and Christmas time spent with Nicolas in Otradnoe. What would she give to bring back even one day from that time! But it was over forever. The foreboding did not deceive her then that that state of freedom and openness to all joys would never return again. But I had to live.
It was comforting to her to think that she was not better, as she had thought before, but worse and much worse than everyone, everyone, who only exists in the world. But this was not enough. She knew this and asked herself: “What next? And then there was nothing. There was no joy in life, and life passed. Natasha, apparently, tried only not to be a burden to anyone and not to interfere with anyone, but for herself she did not need anything. She moved away from everyone at home, and only with her brother Petya was it easy for her. She liked to be with him more than with the others; and sometimes, when she was with him eye to eye, she laughed. She hardly left the house, and of those who came to see them, she was glad only for Pierre. It was impossible to treat her more tenderly, more carefully, and at the same time more seriously than Count Bezukhov treated her. Natasha Osss consciously felt this tenderness of treatment and therefore found great pleasure in his company. But she was not even grateful to him for his tenderness; nothing good on the part of Pierre seemed to her an effort. It seemed so natural for Pierre to be kind to everyone that there was no merit in his kindness. Sometimes Natasha noticed Pierre's embarrassment and awkwardness in her presence, especially when he wanted to do something pleasant for her or when he was afraid that something in the conversation would bring Natasha to painful memories. She noticed this and attributed it to his general kindness and shyness, which, according to her, the same as with her, should have been with everyone. After those inadvertent words that, if he were free, he would ask her hands and love on his knees, said at a moment of such strong excitement for her, Pierre never said anything about his feelings for Natasha; and it was obvious to her that those words, which then so comforted her, were spoken, as all sorts of meaningless words are spoken to comfort a crying child. Not because Pierre was a married man, but because Natasha felt between herself and him in the highest degree that force of moral barriers - the absence of which she felt with Kyragin - it never occurred to her that she could get out of her relationship with Pierre not only love on her part, or still less on his part, but even that kind of tender, self-confessing, poetic friendship between a man and a woman, of which she knew several examples.
At the end of the Petrovsky post, Agrafena Ivanovna Belova, the Otradnenskaya neighbor of the Rostovs, came to Moscow to bow to the Moscow saints. She invited Natasha to go to bed, and Natasha seized on this idea with joy. Despite the doctor’s prohibition to go out early in the morning, Natasha insisted on fasting, and not fasting as usual in the Rostovs’ house, that is, listening to three services at home, but in order to fast as Agrafena Ivanovna used to, that is, all week without missing a single Vespers, Mass or Matins.
The countess liked Natasha's zeal; in her soul, after unsuccessful medical treatment, she hoped that prayer would help her with more medicines, and although with fear and hiding from the doctor, she agreed to Natasha's desire and entrusted her to Belova. Agrafena Ivanovna came at three o'clock in the morning to wake Natasha, and for the most part found her no longer asleep. Natasha was afraid to oversleep the time of matins. Hastily washing herself and humbly dressing in her worst dress and an old mantilla, shuddering with freshness, Natasha went out into the deserted streets, transparently lit by the morning dawn. On the advice of Agrafena Ivanovna, Natasha did not preach in her parish, but in the church, in which, according to the pious Belova, there was a priest of a very strict and high life. There were always few people in the church; Natasha and Belova took their usual place in front of the icon of the Mother of God, embedded in the back of the left choir, and Natasha’s new sense of humility in front of the great, incomprehensible, seized her when, at this unusual hour in the morning, she looked at the black face of the Mother of God, lit by candles. burning in front of him, and the light of the morning falling from the window, she listened to the sounds of the service, which she tried to follow, understanding them. When she understood them, her personal feeling with its shades joined her prayer; when she did not understand, it was still sweeter for her to think that the desire to understand everything is pride, that it is impossible to understand everything, that one must only believe and surrender to God, who at that moment—she felt—ruled her soul. She crossed herself, bowed, and when she did not understand, she only, horrified by her abomination, asked God to forgive her for everything, for everything, and have mercy. The prayers to which she devoted herself most were the prayers of repentance. Returning home at the early hour of the morning, when there were only masons going to work, janitors sweeping the street, and everyone was still sleeping in the houses, Natasha experienced a new feeling for her of the possibility of correcting herself from her vices and the possibility of a new, pure life and happiness.
During the whole week in which she led this life, this feeling grew every day. And the happiness of communion or communication, as Agrafena Ivanovna said to her joyfully playing with this word, seemed to her so great that it seemed to her that she would not live to see this blessed Sunday.
But the happy day came, and when Natasha, on that memorable Sunday, in a white muslin dress, returned from communion, for the first time after many months she felt calm and unburdened by the life that lay ahead of her.
The doctor who came that day examined Natasha and ordered to continue the last powders that he prescribed two weeks ago.
“It is imperative to continue—in the morning and in the evening,” he said, evidently himself conscientiously pleased with his success. “Just please be careful. Be calm, countess, - said the doctor jokingly, deftly picking up the golden one in the flesh of his hand, - soon he will sing again and become frisky. Very, very much in favor of her last remedy. She brightened up a lot.
The countess looked at her nails and spat, returning to the living room with a cheerful face.

At the beginning of July, more and more disturbing rumors about the course of the war spread in Moscow: they talked about the sovereign's appeal to the people, about the arrival of the sovereign himself from the army to Moscow. And since the manifesto and appeal had not been received before July 11, exaggerated rumors circulated about them and about the situation in Russia. They said that the sovereign was leaving because the army was in danger, they said that Smolensk had been surrendered, that Napoleon had a million troops, and that only a miracle could save Russia.
July 11th, Saturday, the manifesto was received but not yet printed; and Pierre, who was with the Rostovs, promised the next day, on Sunday, to come to dinner and bring a manifesto and an appeal, which he would get from Count Rostopchin.
On this Sunday, the Rostovs, as usual, went to Mass at the house church of the Razumovskys. It was a hot July day. Already at ten o'clock, when the Rostovs got out of the carriage in front of the church, in the hot air, in the cries of peddlers, in the bright and light summer dresses of the crowd, in the dusty leaves of the trees of the boulevard, in the sounds of music and white pantaloons of the battalion that passed for divorce, in the thunder of the pavement and In the bright glare of the hot sun there was that summer languor, contentment and dissatisfaction with the present, which is especially sharply felt on a clear hot day in the city. In the church of the Razumovskys there was all the nobility of Moscow, all the acquaintances of the Rostovs (this year, as if expecting something, a lot of wealthy families, usually moving around the villages, remained in the city). Passing behind the livery footman, who was parting the crowd near her mother, Natasha heard the voice of a young man speaking in a too loud whisper about her:
- This is Rostov, the same one ...
- How thin, but still good!
She heard, or it seemed to her, that the names of Kuragin and Bolkonsky were mentioned. However, it always seemed to her. It always seemed to her that everyone, looking at her, was only thinking about what had happened to her. Suffering and dying in her soul, as always in the crowd, Natasha walked in her purple silk dress with black lace the way women know how to walk - the calmer and more majestic, the more painful and ashamed she felt in her soul. She knew and was not mistaken that she was good, but this did not please her now, as before. On the contrary, it tormented her most of all lately, and especially on this bright, hot summer day in the city. “Another Sunday, another week,” she said to herself, remembering how she had been here that Sunday, “and still the same life without life, and all the same conditions in which it used to be so easy to live before. She is good, young, and I know that now I am good, before I was bad, but now I am good, I know, she thought, but the best years pass in vain, for no one. She stood beside her mother and exchanged relations with close acquaintances. Natasha, out of habit, looked at the ladies' toilets, condemned the tenue [behavior] and the indecent way of crossing herself with the hand in the small space of one standing close by, again thought with annoyance that they were judging her, that she was judging, and suddenly, hearing the sounds of the service, she was horrified at her vileness, horrified at the fact that her former purity was again lost by her.
The handsome, quiet old man served with that meek solemnity that has such a majestic, calming effect on the souls of those who pray. The royal doors closed, the veil slowly drew back; a mysterious quiet voice said something from there. Tears, incomprehensible to her, stood in Natasha's chest, and a joyful and agonizing feeling agitated her.
“Teach me what to do, how to improve myself forever, forever, how to deal with my life…” she thought.
The deacon went out to the pulpit, straightened out his long hair from under the surplice, with his thumb wide apart, and, placing a cross on his chest, loudly and solemnly began to read the words of the prayer:
“Let us pray to the Lord for peace.”
“In peace, all together, without distinction of class, without enmity, and united by brotherly love, we will pray,” thought Natasha.
- About the peace from above and about the salvation of our souls!
“About the world of angels and souls of all incorporeal beings that live above us,” Natasha prayed.
When they prayed for the army, she remembered her brother and Denisov. When they prayed for sailors and travelers, she remembered Prince Andrei and prayed for him, and prayed that God would forgive her the evil that she had done to him. When they prayed for those who love us, she prayed for her family, for her father, mother, Sonya, for the first time now realizing all her guilt before them and feeling all the strength of her love for them. When we prayed for those who hate us, she invented enemies and haters for herself in order to pray for them. She counted creditors and all those who dealt with her father as enemies, and every time she thought of enemies and haters, she remembered Anatole, who had done her so much evil, and although he was not a hater, she joyfully prayed for him as for enemy. Only during prayer did she feel able to clearly and calmly remember both Prince Andrei and Anatole, as people for whom her feelings were destroyed in comparison with her feeling of fear and reverence for God. When they prayed for the royal family and for the Synod, she bowed especially low and crossed herself, telling herself that if she does not understand, she cannot doubt and still loves the ruling Synod and prays for it.

The first known calendar of ancient Rome is Romulus. It is believed that it appeared around the 8th century BC. and was named Romulus in honor of one of the legendary founders of Rome - Romulus.

The following is known about this version of the calendar:

1. According to the first known version of Romulus, 304 days were supposed to be in a year.
2. The year consisted of 10 months.
3. March was the first month of the year.

With the next reform of the calendar, carried out by the heir of Romulus Numa Pompilius, 2 months were added to it. Thus, there are 12 months in a year.

Months of the year according to Romulus:

Month	Comment
Martius	In honor of the god Mars, who was considered the father of Romulus.
Aprilis	In most sources, information about the name of the month is missing or initially considered unreliable. There is a variant of education from "aperire" - to open, in the meaning of the beginning of spring.
Maius	In honor of the goddess Maya (goddess of the earth, wildlife).
Iunius	In honor of the goddess Juno - the supreme goddess.
Quintilis	Fifth.
Sextilis	Sixth.
September	Seventh.
October	Eighth.
October	Ninth.
December	Tenth.
Januarius	Named after the god of time - Janus (In ancient mythology, Janus patronized not only time).
Februarius	It is named after the ritual sacrifices of purification (februum) that were held in Rome at the end of the year.

Both calendars were lunar. Due to the discrepancy between the lunar month and the calendar, the high priests from time to time had to amend the calendar, add days, and also announce to people that a new month had come.

Each month, according to the presentation of this calendar, contained several important numbers.

• The first day of every month is the Kalendae. According to the lunar calendar, it coincides with the new moon.
• The fifth or seventh (in March, May, June and October) number is Nonae. According to the lunar calendar, it coincides with the first quarter of the moon.
• Thirteenth or fifteenth (March, May, July, October) day - Ida (Idae). This day coincides with the full moon.

The days of the month were usually counted back from these numbers. The day before one of these days (eve) is pridie or ante. All days of the month between kalends and nones are counted to nons (for example, the fifth day before nons, the fourth day before nons, etc.), between nones and ides - to ides (the fifth day before the id, the fourth day before the id, etc.) .), then there was an account until the calendars of the next month.

This calendar was changed in the 1st c. BC. Julius Caesar after traveling to Egypt and getting acquainted with the Egyptian calendar.

Until that time, the year among the Romans was indicated not by numbers, but by the names of two consuls, who were elected for one year.

Before the appearance of dividing each month into weeks, the month was divided into parts in accordance with the number of market and non-working days (they were announced by the high priest). They were called nundinae (nundins).

The day was divided into 2 parts: day and night. Day and night, in turn, were also divided into 12 equal hours. But, since both day and night in the understanding of the Romans were daylight (from sunrise to sunset) and night (from sunset to sunrise), the duration of the day and night hours were different and depended on the time of year. In the Roman army, the night was divided into 4 guards (vigiliae) of 3 night hours.

• Vigilia prima
• Vigilia secunda
• Vigilia tertia
• Vigilia quarta

As mentioned earlier, this calendar was modified by Caesar in the 1st century BC.

Days, weeks and months pass, few of us think about where the current names on the calendar came from. In fact, our modern calendar is thousands of years old, rooted in the Roman Empire.

And after the fall of the Roman Empire, the Roman calendar was used in its former territories during the early Middle Ages. Although some details have changed, our modern calendar is simply a version of the ancient Roman calendar.
This is how the months of the year got their names.

January


Statue depicting Janus Bifrons in the Vatican Museum.

January, the first month of the Roman imperial calendar, is named after the god Janus.
This important Roman deity was the god of beginnings and was usually depicted with two faces, one looking forward and the other looking back.

Temple of Janus with closed doors on sestertium, minted under Nero in AD 66 at the mint at Lugdunum.

Janus was also the god of doorways, gates, and passages, which is why he was chosen to mark the month of transition from one year to the next.
The first day of January was the beginning of the New Year, when the feast of Janus was celebrated with the exchange of sweet gifts such as dates, figs, or honey. Pies were brought as a gift to the altar to God.

February


February from the book "The Three Wealths of the Duc de Berry" is a prayer book recited in canonical time.

February takes its name from the feast of purification, Februus, the month of purification, which was believed to drive evil spirits out of the city of Rome.
On the 15th day of the month, a number of rites were held throughout Rome, many of which involved sacrifices or ritual parades.

March


March from the book "The Three Wealths of the Duke de Berry" is a prayer book recited in canonical time.

March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is believed that this month marked the beginning of the period when the Roman army was preparing for the upcoming season of military campaigns.
Therefore, it was important to glorify the god of war at this time, and March was a period of rituals and festivals that ensured military success.

Medieval image of Mars sitting on a rainbow with a sword and scepter, calling people to war.

March was originally the first month in the Roman calendar, which had only ten months at the time. However, to avoid confusion with the dates, two extra months (January and February) were added and the start of the year was moved to January.
The Julian calendar (created as a result of the reforms of Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC) is a version of the Roman calendar from which our modern dating system is derived.

April


April panel from a Roman mosaic of months (from El Jem, Tunisia, first half of the 3rd century AD).

April is named after the Roman month Aprillis, used as the name of the fourth month of the Roman calendar.
One of the most popular versions is that Aprillis refers to the Latin aperier, which means "to open". April is the month when flowers begin to bloom and spring enters its full bloom, which is why such a special name.

May


Hermes and Maia, detail of a ceramic amphora (c. 500 BC).

The month of May, when the earth begins to bear fruit, is named after the Greek goddess of the earth, Maia. She was the goddess of fertility and abundance, which is why she is associated with this warm, bountiful season.
The Roman poet Ovid, however, thought differently. He argued that the Latin name "May" came from major, which means "oldest", as opposed to the name "June" from junior, or "young."

June


June is associated with one of the most important deities of the Roman Pantheon. Juno, the wife of Jupiter, is glorified in June, and she gave her name to this important month.
Juno was also known as the goddess of marriage, and in Roman culture, the end of June was considered especially auspicious for weddings. However, getting married before the 15th was considered a bad omen and was generally avoided.

July


Sculpture of the Roman emperor Julius Caesar at the old greenhouse in the Lazienki public park, Warsaw. The sculpture was made by Francisc Pink (1733-1798).

July is the first month in the Roman calendar named after a historical figure. Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator and conqueror of Gaul, certainly left his mark on Roman society.

Assassination of Julius Caesar by Vincenzo Camuccini, 1804

July was originally called Quintilis, as it was the fifth month in the traditional Roman calendar. However, after the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC. E. It was renamed in his honor, as it was the month of his birth.

August


Julius Caesar's successor, Octavian, did not want to be outdone by his adoptive father, and as a result, the next month in the Roman calendar is named after him.

Octavian rose to power to become the first emperor of Rome, after which he changed his name to Augustus, which means "consecrated" or "venerable".
Although many other Roman figures tried to put their name on the calendar, none of them succeeded, Julius Caesar and Augustus remain the only people mentioned in the names of the months of the year.

September - December

The rest of the months in the Roman calendar have a less elevated etymology. They were simply named by a serial number that existed before the Julian reforms.

September comes from septem, which means seven; October is from October, which means eight; November is from November, which means nine; and December from decem, which means ten.

12.3. Calendars of Ancient Rome. Julian calendar.

Gregorian calendar

In ancient Rome, the first calendar appeared in VIII in. BC e., he was lunar. The year consisted of 10 months, 304 days in a year. The year began on the first day of the first spring month. Initially, all months were designated by numerals, then they received names:

· Martius- in honor of the god of war and the patron saint of agriculture and cattle breeding Mars, agricultural work began this month (31 days);

· Aprilis– aperire (lat.) - grow, unfold (29 days);

· Maius- in honor of the goddess of beauty and growth Maya (31 days);

· Junius- in honor of the goddess of fertility Juno (29 days);

· Quintilis- the fifth month (31 days);

· Sextile– sixth (29 days);

· September- the seventh (29 days);

· oktober- the eighth (31 days);

· november- ninth (29 days);

· december- tenth (29 days).

The superstitious Romans were afraid of even numbers, so each month consisted of 29 or 31 days. AT V 2nd century BC e. - calendar reform, a lunisolar calendar was created, in which there were 355 days divided into 12 months. Two new months:

· Januarius- in honor of the two-faced god Janus (31 days);

· Februarius- the month of purification, in honor of the god of the dead and the underworld Februaria (29 days).

KalendsThe first day of every month in the Roman calendar.

Nona- 7th day of long months, 5th day of short months.

ides- 15 day long, 13 day short months. The counting of days by calends, nones and ides is a trace of the lunar calendar. Kalends are the day of the new moon, Nones are the day of the first quarter of the moon, Ides are the day of the full moon.

In order to bring the year as close as possible to the tropical one (365 and 1/4 days), every two years they began to introduce an additional month between February 23 and 24 - marcedony (from the Latin word "marces" - payment), initially equal to 20 days. This month, all cash settlements of the past year were to be completed. However, this measure failed to eliminate the discrepancy between the Roman and tropical years.

Therefore, in V in. BC. The Romans, following the example of the Greek calendar, introduced an 8-year cycle, slightly changing it. The Greeks had 3 extended years every 8 years, while the Romans introduced a 4-year cycle with two extended years. Marcedonium began to be administered twice every four years, alternating 22 and 23 additional days. Thus, the average year in this 4-year cycle was equal to 366 days and became longer than the tropical year by about 3/4 days. To eliminate this discrepancy, the priests were given the right to correct the calendar and decide what inserts to make in it. Intercolation- the introduction of an additional month, the duty of the priests - pontiffs. Using their right to introduce additional days and months into the calendar, the priests so confused the calendar that in the 1st c. BC. there is an urgent need for its reform.

Julian calendar . Such a reform was carried out in 46 BC. e. initiated by Julius Caesar. The reformed calendar in his honor became known as the Julian. The calendar reform was based on the astronomical knowledge accumulated by the Egyptians. Sozigen, an Egyptian astronomer from Alexandria, was invited to create a new calendar. The reformers were still faced with the same task - to bring the Roman year as close as possible to the tropical one and, thanks to this, to maintain the constant correspondence of certain days of the calendar to the same seasons.

The Egyptian year of 365 days was taken as the basis, but it was decided to introduce an additional day every four years. Thus, the average year in a 4-year cycle became equal to 365 days and 6 hours. Sosigen retained the number of months and their names, but the duration of the months was increased to 30 and 31 days. An extra day was added to February, which had 28 days, and inserted between the 23rd and 24th, where marcedony had previously been inserted.
As a result, in such an extended year, a second 24th appeared, and since the Romans counted the day in an original way, determining how many days remained until a certain date of each month, this additional day turned out to be the second sixth before the March calends (before March 1). In Latin, such a day was called bissektus - the second sixth ("bis" - twice, more, sixth - six).
In the Slavic pronunciation, this term sounded somewhat different, and the word "leap year" appeared in Russian, and the elongated year began to be called leap year year.

January 1 began to be considered the beginning of the year, since on this day the consuls began to perform their duties. Subsequently, the names of some months were changed: in 44 BC. e. quintilis in honor of Julius Caesar became known as July, in 8 BC. sextile - in August in honor of the emperor Octavian Augustus. In connection with the change in the beginning of the year, the ordinal names of some months lost their meaning, for example, the tenth month ("December - December") became the twelfth.

The Julian calendar is purely solar. In the Julian calendar, the year became only 11 minutes 14 seconds longer than the tropical year. The Julian calendar lagged behind the tropical year by one day every 128 years. Initially, the Julian calendar was used only in Rome. In 325, the first Ecumenical Council of Nicaea decided to consider this calendar obligatory for all Christian countries. The Julian calendar was adopted in Byzantium on September 1, 550 AD. e. In the tenth century moved to Russia.

Gregorian calendar . In the Julian calendar, the average length of the year was 365 days 6 hours, therefore, it was longer than the tropical year (365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds) by 11 minutes 14 seconds. This difference, accumulating annually, led after 128 years to an error of one day, after 384 years - to 3 days, and after 1280 years already to 10 days. As a result, the vernal equinox is March 24 during the time of Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC. BC.; March 21 - at the Council of Nicaea in I V in. n. e.; March 11 at the end of X V I century, and this threatened in the future with the transfer of the main holiday of the Christian church - Easter from spring to summer. This affected religious and economic life. Easter was to be celebrated after the spring equinox - March 21 and no later than April 25. Again there was a need for reform of the calendar. The Catholic Church carried out a new reform in 1582 under Pope Gregory XIII.

A special commission was created from clerics and learned astronomers. The author of the reform project was the Italian scientist - physician, mathematician and astronomer Aloysius Lilio. The reform was supposed to solve two main tasks: firstly, to eliminate the accumulated difference of 10 days between the calendar and tropical years and prevent this mistake in the future, and secondly, to bring the calendar year as close as possible to the tropical one, so that in the future the difference between them would not be noticeable.

The first problem was solved by the administrative procedure: a special papal bull ordered October 5, 1582 to be considered October 15. Thus, the spring equinox returned to March 21st.

The second problem was solved by reducing the number of leap years in order to reduce the average length of the Julian year. Every 400 years, 3 leap years were dropped from the calendar. 1600 remained a leap year in the new calendar, while 1700, 1800 and 1900 remained a leap year. became simple. According to the Gregorian calendar, years whose numbers end in two zeros began to be considered leap years only if the first two digits are divisible by 4 without a remainder. The calendar year approached the tropical year because the difference of three days, which accumulated every 400 years, was discarded.

The new Gregorian calendar created has become much more perfect than the Julian one. Each year now lagged behind the tropical one by only 26 seconds, and the discrepancy between them in one day accumulated after 3323 years. Such a lag has no practical significance.

The Gregorian calendar was originally introduced in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal and the Southern Netherlands, then in Poland, Austria, the Catholic lands of Germany and a number of other European countries. The introduction of the Gregorian calendar ran into fierce opposition from the clergy of those churches that compete with the Catholic Church. The Orthodox, Anglican, Protestant churches, referring to church dogmas and theological interpretations, declared the Gregorian calendar to be contrary to the teachings of the apostles.

In 1583, a church council was convened in Constantinople, which recognized the inaccuracy of the Julian reckoning of time. But the new calendar was not recognized as correct. The advantage was left to the old Julian calendar, as it was more consistent with the definition of the day for celebrating Easter. According to the Gregorian system of counting time, it became possible for the day of the celebration of the Christian and Jewish Easter to coincide, which, according to the apostolic rules, was strictly prohibited. In those states where the Orthodox Christian Church dominated, the Julian calendar was used for a long time. For example, in Bulgaria a new calendar was introduced only in 1916, in Serbia in 1919. In Russia, the Gregorian calendar was introduced in 1918, by the Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of January 24, it was prescribed to consider the day following January 31 not 1, but February 14.

The relationship between the Julian (old style) and Gregorian calendars (new style) . The difference between them is not a constant value, but is constantly increasing. B X V I century., When the reform was carried out, it was 10 days, and in the twentieth century. it was already equal to 13 days. How did this accumulation come about? 1700 was a leap year in the Julian calendar, but a prime year in the Gregorian calendar, since 17 cannot be divided by 4 without a remainder. Thus, the difference between the calendars increased to 11 days. Similarly, the next increase in the discrepancy between them occurred in 1800 (up to 12 days), and then in 1900 (up to 13 days). In 2000, the difference remained the same, since this year is a leap year in both calendars, and will only reach 14 days in 2100, which will be a leap year in the Julian calendar, but a simple one in the Gregorian.