Under our pronoun. Everything you wanted to know about pronouns but didn't know how to ask. Grammar of correct spelling

: "the task of pronouns, in particular, is to follow individual phenomena at the level of context."

In fact, the semantics of pronouns is complex and combines different components. Traditionally, this class includes words expressing the following types of meanings:

* deixis, i.e., an indication of the participants in the situation (these are, first of all, personal pronouns of the first and second person: I, you);

It's hard for me to judge this, but I can say one thing: " I I would not have been able to play this role if I had not experienced anything like this in my life. "[Jim Carrey - inside and out (2004) //" Screen and Stage ", 2004.05.06]

* anaphora - a reference to the previous text; the boundary between anaphora and deixis is not always clearly traced;

Chairs and chests of drawers, cups, trays, toys, antique chandeliers. Some of them have been restored and displayed in the store as part of the old interior, some, worn and beaten, are haphazardly stacked on the shelves. Involuntarily, the question arises as to how it happened that all these things preserved in a world where the main principles of consumption are fashion, novelty, modern comfort? [“Safeguard”, 2004.01.15]

Type of reference (correlation of the participant of the statement with reality, for example, uncertainty - some, versatility - all, negation - no).

The article offers some approaches to solving this problem at the level of algorithmic and logical design. [“Information Technologies”, No. 1, 2004]

According to their semantics, pronouns are divided into the following classes (see ; examples in brackets are given, not a complete list):

1) personal ( me, we)

2) return ( myself)

3) interrogative-relative ( who, where, why)

4) index ( this, this, so)

5) mutual ( each other, one another)

6) indefinite ( someone, someone, anywhere)

7) negative ( nobody, never)

8) universality ( all, everything, everywhere)

9) amplifying-excretory ( most, himself)

10) with the meaning "other" ( other, otherwise)

11) possessive ( mine, yours, his, him, theirs)

Pronouns belong to the most frequent words of the language (in the Frequency Dictionary of O. N. Lyashevskaya and S. A. Sharov, compiled according to the NCRL, the words of the first 20 ranks include, in descending order of frequency, I, that, he, this, they, we, all that); in the written text, according to our calculations, they are about 20% of the total number of word usages, in oral speech more than 30% (see statistics at the end of the article). (Cm. )

Morphosyntactic subclasses

List of subclasses

The allocation of the pronoun as a single part of speech is not generally accepted. Depending on the morphosyntactic properties, pronouns can be divided into several classes.

1) Pronouns-nouns, occupying the syntactic position of the top of the nominal group, performing the function of the subject in the sentence ( I speak), additions ( Ivan didn't see anyone) and as part of the prepositional group circumstances ( left everyone, walked past him, could not work because of this)

2) Pronouns-adjectives (they are also pronominal adjectives), occupying the position of the dependent in the nominal group and performing the function of definition ( my son, what time is it), or occupying the position of the nominal part of the predicate ( he is).

3) Pronouns - adverbs (they are also pronominal adverbs) that perform the function of circumstance ( where did he go, he was so scared). Sometimes pronominal adverbs are not distinguished into a special class and are classified as adverbs (see below)

4) Pronouns-predicatives, occupying the position of the predicate ( what was it like performing?). The pronouns of this class also act in the dual function of the predicate and the complement ( nothing to do) or predicate and circumstance ( nowhere to sleep) - "syntactic amalgam". A number of researchers classify predicative pronouns into types of adverbs (type nowhere) and to pronoun-nouns (type nothing). Predicative pronouns are not distinguished in academic grammars.

5) Pronouns-numerals (they are also pronominal numerals), which have special syntactic properties within the quantitative group. They combine quantitative semantics with interrogative, indicative or indefinite ( how many). They are often referred to as numerals without distinguishing a special class within pronouns.

Different interpretations of subclasses of pronouns

	Grammars of the 18th-19th centuries.	A. A. Shakhmatov, Ozhegov's Dictionary	Academic grammars
Noun pronouns	Pronouns	Pronouns	Pronouns	Noun pronouns	Pronouns
Pronominal adjectives			adjectives	Pronouns-adjectives	Pronouns-adjectives; possessive adjectives
pronominal numerals			Numerals	Numerals	Approximate quantifiers, pronouns
Predicative pronouns			Pronouns, adverbs	Predicative pronouns	Negative existential pronoun
Pronominal adverbs		Pronominal adverbs			Adverbial pronouns

Existing interpretations of subclasses of pronouns are presented in the table above.

In the terminology of academic grammars-1970, 1980 and 1989 ("Short Russian Grammar") pronouns only noun pronouns are named; words of other classes refer to pronominal words and belong to other parts of speech. This concept is based on formal grammatical features (the works of L. V. Shcherba, M. V. Panov, etc.), as a result of which pronouns as part of speech are either not distinguished at all, or formal originality is seen only in noun pronouns, which are considered part of speech.

There is also a division in which pronominal adverbs are opposed to inflected pronouns. Either pronominal adverbs do not form a special part of speech, being part of adverbs, and inflected pronouns form it (grammars of the 19th century), or two parts of speech are distinguished - pronouns and pronominal adverbs (A. A. Shakhmatov). With this approach, pronominal predicates nobody and nothing fall into one part of speech, and nowhere and what is- in another.

Morphology

General

Pronominal roots often consist of a single consonant: t-from, t-th, someone, to-th, something, h-eat, s-her, s-them, s-s, s-as; they can even be expressed as zero, as in forms like them, them, where at the surface level the root j- is not distinguished . In pronouns, suppletivism is widespread (the formation of a paradigm of personal pronouns of the 1st and 3rd person with a change in the root); there are unique endings I. Ed. -then in who, from in that and etc.; the division of word forms into stems and endings is often conditional.

word formation

Main series

The presence of separate derivational series pronouns covering all syntactic categories; so, stand out: interrogative series to-, index with-(close) and t-(distant), designations of universality on sun-. A number of forms are formed suppletively. Series on with- is particularly irregular.

Pronouns are classified according to "theme" and logical-semantic features (cf. also the semantic classification in work)

	Interrogative-relative	Index - near	Index - distant	Generalities
Essence	who (inanimate), what (inanimate)	this (obsolete, ironic and as part of phraseological units), this
Quality	which, which (of several possibilities), which (obsolete), which (predicative)	(as part of phraseological units), sort of (simple)	such, such (predicative)
		here, here, here (phraseologist)		everywhere, everywhere
Direction				everywhere, everywhere
Removal				from everywhere, from everywhere (architect and poet)
Modus operandi		like (as part of phraseological units), that way (simple)		anything (phraseology, simple)
		now, now
Quantity		so much (simple and dial)

Sometimes this series of forms is considered as inflectional, and separate series of adverbs are considered as special case forms: directive, distant, temporary case; this approach has not been widely accepted.

There are also pronouns that are formed from interrogative pronouns using prefixes and postfixes. not- (someone, something, some, some), something- (something, something, something etc.) and postpositive formants: suffixes - then, -or, -someday and formants whatever, whatever, whatever. Pronominal words with the same formant are sometimes called a series; for example, someone, something, some, someone, somewhere, sometime, somewhere, how much, for some reason, for some reason can be called then-series.

From a semantic point of view, pronouns formed with the help of such indicators are indefinite pronouns, except for two series of negative pronouns - for unstressed neither-(never, nowhere...) and predicative pronouns on stressed not-(nobody, nowhere).

Not all such pronominal-affixal combinations are allowed in the language, and most of the gaps fall on forms with the prefix not-(both negative predicative pronouns and indefinite pronouns) and forms from the pronoun which.

Some of the similar combinations that exist in the language are archaic (cf. nowhere in a single line attributed to N. S. Gumilyov Someone once saw something somewhere; some in Some kind of unsatisfied I always fly a guy in heights[G. R. Derzhavin. God]; none in No number. The day was without number[N. B, Gogol. Diary of a Madman]). Some of the pronominal words of this kind have a vivid dialectal character (for example, the word form not like in the Corpus I met only with the Arkhangelsk writer B. V. Shergin, who actively stylized dialect speech: To help, but there is no way, to help, but there is nothing.[B. V. Shergin. Gentle Water (1930-1960)]). a few occasionally found in texts of electronic communication on the Internet: from Chop to Budapest, too, you need to spend some money. Wed See also the table in (not all estimates of occurrence in it can be agreed, below we provide a corrected and supplemented version of it):

		non- (negative predicate)	not- (neopr.)
		+ (no one)
		+ (nothing)
			some ( obsolete)
		(dial.)
							- (rarely)

If there is a preposition, prefixes something and neither- appear as separate spelling words, parsed in the NKRY as particles: with someone, with no one.

inflection

General

The pronoun is characterized by the presence of the following inflectional categories:

* Pronouns-adjectives have concordant categories:

Genus: your house, this car,

Number: whose city, what cities,

Animation: I see another person, I see another chair.

* For all inflected pronouns - case (for pronouns-adjectives obtained by agreement): who needs it, I talk to him about what event. reflexive pronoun myself has no nominative case. In personal pronouns, the genitive case coincides with the accusative case, not only in the first two persons, meaning animate or personified objects, but also in the third, where the reference to inanimate objects is normal. Accordingly, they do not see the category of animation ( I saw a man, I saw a plant - I saw him; saw people, saw plants - saw them). Thus, under negation, the accusative and genitive cases of personal pronouns are never distinguished ( didn't see him), as with animate nouns ( didn't see my brother) and an animate negative pronoun none(didn't see anyone).

Widespread use what in the nominative/accusative case function ( What do you want? What?), colloquially simplified to [cho] (when transmitting colloquial, reduced speech - in writing cho or what):

- No, well, why are you twisting your brains, huh? ― a voice asked right off the bat. - What did you, in nature, get to the bottom of? Are you a man or what? [Andrey Volos. Real Estate (2000) // New World, No. 1-2, 2001]

Pronominal words change according to different types of declension:

• mixed
• specific type
• most pronouns-adjectives change according to the adjective declension ( which, other, others and the like).

Pronominal adverbs and predicatives, except no one and nothing, like all adverbs, do not change.

Mixed (pronominal) type

There is a pronominal (mixed) type of declension specific for pronouns-nouns, adjectives and predicatives, which has two subtypes - the type on and and type on e(according to Grammar-1970 - "first" and "second" pronominal declensions). They differ in the plural ending vowel ( our-them vs. sun-ex). A number of pronouns-nouns of mixed declension that do not have a plural are assigned by Grammar-70 to the second declension ( who, what, nobody, nothing, someone, something, also pronominal predicates no one and nothing), although there are no diagnostic contexts for choosing between subtypes; pronouns he she it assigned to the first type, that is, to the same place as the pronoun they, with which they are combined into one lexeme.

By subtype and noun pronoun change they, pronominal adjectives mine, yours, yours, who, this, whose, no one's, himself, this, ours, yours, word one(acting both in the function of a pronoun and in the function of a numeral), as well as numerals (sometimes related to pronominal) many, how much, so many and their derivatives. In subtype on e includes pronouns and adjectives that and the whole.

	Singular			Plural
				I (I) /-e (II)
				Their (I) /-ex (II)
				Im (I) / -em (II)
				Im'i (I) / -em'i (II)
				Their (I) / -ex (II)

Non-standard mixed-type molds

Three pronouns of the first pronominal declension can have (as singular or optional) in modern literary texts inflection V. units. well. R. not -y, a –oyo: she is her, herself - most(along with the predominant word form herself). The form most occasionally in modern texts, and most actively in postposition to the word form her with the same ending her very - 41 times since 1950 vs. 67 herself for the same period):

Learn the way you were supposed to. As once taught her most. [AND. Grekov. Pheasant (1984)]

Outside of this stable combination most used much less frequently.

The very theory of algorithms can be interpreted as the logic and linguistics of imperative sentences. [AT. A. Uspensky. Wittgenstein and the Foundations of Mathematics (1998)]

including with errors (B. case instead of I., possibly under the influence of the accusative case in the previous noun phrase):

Otherwise, they would not call him, like a midwife, to take a premature baby, which is love itself; love children will come later. [AT. G. Rasputin. New Profession (1998)]

word forms toyo(Get toyo Firebird[P. P. Ershov, Little Humpbacked Horse]; also has the value of I. V. unit. avg. = then and R. units. female = toy), which, one are outdated; toyo also acts as dialectism and Ukrainianism in the sense then.

It became dark in the ward, exactly at dusk, and the music seemed to be playing from afar, and he thought: “Oh, if only I could see my daughters even in a dream,” and fell asleep. toe well a minute. [WITH. T. Aksakov. Scarlet Flower (1858)]

We had one trough, crumpled, crumpled, tin. [Svetlana Vasilenko. Death Gene (1997-2000)]

It was because of her, because of the very same Agrafena Ivanovna, that he fought with the English milord Goose-goose on dowels; and the English my lord had to utter an apologetic compliment. [AND. C. Turgenev. Brigadier (1847-1852)]

Vokkurat at the very time, as I honestly killed for you, and that Shurka lived here in us. [Lyudmila Gurchenko. Applause (1994-2003)]

In the texts of the Corpus, the form used is R. sg. (with suggestions) her instead of her(also without n- type she has see next section). It is used to stylize vernacular and dialectal speech:

So she then said that I she has right from the horse he asked for a special one with a shag to knock the memory out of his head right away. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Keeper of Antiquities Part 2 (1964)]

There, on each alley, there are four doors, and she has extreme on the left hand, if you crawl upstairs. Duck, we didn’t get to me, my heart was jumping out completely, we stopped by with my samovar. There is only one old woman who lives with her, she is very thin, she can barely walk on the flat floor. Well, as soon as we sat down - the samovar was emptied. ["Star", 2002]

as well as in neutral contexts (including in poetic language - She has a special[F. I. Tyutchev])

She was wise, aphoristic in her assessments, and always very friendly. Although her tongue was sharp. [Eldar Ryazanov. Summed up (2000)]

Pronoun 3 l. pl. h. R. onet(indirect cases coincide with forms from they) and to a lesser extent the similar form of the pronoun and numeral alone, in the XIX-XX centuries. which in a significant part of the cases were spelling conventions, were abolished by the reform of 1918. These forms are preserved in writing and in pronunciation when they are transmitted in the new orthography of poems, where they form a rhyme ( And they envy the Sovereign's wife, A. S. Pushkin; To meet me Only miles striped Caught alone, he) or participates in the opposition of characters by gender in poetry and prose ( They asked: “Like in flying canoes. Shall we glide like a white seagull on the waves, So that the guards do not catch up with us? - Row! - they answered L. May; They and one- the name of the section of the article by I. Annensky "On modern lyricism", dedicated to poets and poetesses, All of them are like this- the old translation of the title of Mozart's opera "Cosi fan tutte" (Italian lit. "all [women] do this"), is mentioned in the NKRY in the text of G. Kogan "The work of a pianist", 1963). Forms onet and alone in modern texts it is also often found as a dialectal variant of they and alone, unrelated to the genus ( Well, skygazers, they rode into the distance, but they don’t know what they fly under their noses.[Victor Astafiev. Flying Goose (2000)]; Hens and those were gathered in one place, sheep, one cat remained at home. [Vasily Belov. Carpentry Tales (1968)]).

Under the conditions of rhyme or Church Slavonic stylization, the form of R. unit, canceled by the reform of 1918, is also preserved. her from she is.

Immediately forces doubled: a hard-worn Wrangel man, once a captain her Imperial Majesty's Hussar Regiment, Warsaw, it seems, and to the board our square tank colonel. [Yuri Davydov. Blue Tulips (1988-1989)]

There are also erroneous hypercorrect forms her in the value of V. units. (before the reform of 1918 - her):

I am not as naive as Mr. Arie, I will not accuse Russian literature with the same Russian language, not realizing that by doing so I would only assert her. [The Swan (Boston), 2003.09.14]

Basic pronouns he, she, it, they

Pronouns he, she, it, they have a suppletive stem I. case is he-(in indirect cases j-), and after the prepositions of the form on n-(with him, from her, for them). Deviations from this rule are dialectal in color:

Which foreman is smart - he does not work as much as he leans on the percentage. This (=from her) feed. What has not been done - prove what has been done; for which they pay cheaply - wrap it so that it is more expensive. [Alexander Solzhenitsyn. One day of Ivan Denisovich (1961)]

She works as a hostess at the camp site. We this(= with her / with her) having parted. [Sergey Dovlatov. Reserve (1983)]

For weakly grammaticalized prepositions, the use of the form on n- more rarely ( thanks to him vs. thanks to him). Forms are also used n- after the comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs (see [Itkin 2007]).

in the NCRC thanks to + n- - 6 occurrences (since 1922) against 1096 on thanks to +j-; comparative degree + n- - 294 occurrences versus 6674.

According to the corpus, the combination of the comparative degree with n- meet since 1766. List of comparatives compatible with n-forms, consists mainly of the most frequent parametric forms with a one-syllable ending and also one- or much less often two-syllable root: closer, bigger, higher, deeper, farther, shorter, steeper, better, younger, younger, lower, later, easier, earlier, older, worse, wider; forms of a different structure are less frequent.

Special declension pronouns

Pronouns I, you, we, you, yourself have a special set of endings, close to the system of inflections of the first declension of feminine nouns. They are characterized by suppletivism of foundations, and for we and you- unique ending -ace. Pronoun paradigm myself defective, no nominative case. These pronouns are morphologically animated, their V. case is R.

	Singular			Plural
	me, me	you, you	yourself, yourself
					reflexive pronoun-noun myself does not distinguish between persons and numbers and does not have the form of Im. case. Reflexive pronoun-adjective mine(which is also possessive) is inflected like other possessive pronouns. From pronoun mine a pronoun is formed in my own way. In a sentence myself serves as an adjunct or circumstance: Established by a group of experts who consider myself independent, the league is preparing to provide almost any type of service. [Pavel Kupriyanov. Client's lawyer // "Computerworld", No. 25, 2004] Moroccans in Europe can open a joint checking account at a local branch for yourself and for family members living in Morocco. [Remittances from migrants as a factor in the innovative development of the global financial infrastructure // Questions of Statistics, No. 8, 2004] Father walked along the paths of the garden, sighed, and if he did not see anyone around yourself, began to loudly recite Seneca. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. The monkey comes for his skull, part 1 (1943-1958)] pronoun mine- by definition with an addition or circumstance: The child received the instruction: "Draw your family so that its members are busy with something. "["Questions of Psychology", No. 5, 2004] Museum of the Monastery of St. Catherine is interesting not only because of your age(the monastery was founded back in the 11th century), but also by the way time flowed through it. [Alexey Mokrousov. The word to Larissa Miller (2002) // "Brownie", 2002.08.04] pronoun in my own way- circumstance: Apparently he in my own way accepted these messages and continued to criticize the city administration. [Sergey Nikolaev. One explosion, two detentions (2003) // Rich (Saratov), ​​2003.10.16] Reflexive pronouns act only in an anaphoric function, expressing coreference (i.e., referential identity) to the antecedent (i.e., the word to which the pronoun refers). Usually the reflexive pronoun refers to the subject of the predicate to which it is subordinate. The antecedent to which the reflexive pronoun refers can be: 1. Grammatical subject, i.e. subject of the sentence: Small business develops, nourishes myself and creates jobs. [Denis Viktorov. Wall (2003) // Business Journal, 2003.10.23] With the subject of the verb in the passive voice (which does not express the original subject of the verb), the use of a reflexive pronoun requires additional conditions. Valid uses of the type: He was covered his artisanal colonel's passion for war, and his coarse ambition trembled with tension, and Getmanov urged him on, and he was afraid of his superiors. [Vasily Grossman. Life and Destiny Part 3 (1960)] The following types are not allowed: * Pushkin was exiled by the tsar to his estate; Wed, however: Someone was sneezing on the stage; sneeze this was introduced by the author in my play as a "comic moment" or "element". [AND. C. Turgenev. Spring Waters (1872)] Impossible to use myself (by myself) in the position of agentive complement: * This barber was shaved by himself. Wed the only clearly language-game-related violation of this rule in the Corpus: Did you think well? Do you really want this? Well, since you are suffering so morally, I will disturb the order ... My dear, your son was killed yourself… [Oleg Pavlov. Karaganda deviatiny, or the Tale of the last days // "October", No. 8, 2001] 2. the implied subject of the following syntactic constructions: * participle turnover: In the center of the winter tangle, even in severe frosts, bees maintain a temperature of about 24-28 degrees, in which even peasants who heat their firewood huts. [Kirill Efremov. Reflections at the bookshelf: Escape from loneliness // "Knowledge is power", 2003] * separate definition: Loyal yourself, as in other things, Nekrasov did not consider himself a professional in military affairs - let us recall Kerzhentsev's nightly conversation with Farber on the banks of the Volga to the sounds of the Fifth Symphony. [Vladimir Potresov. The Return of Nekrasov (2004)] * adverbial turnover: Because my task was to see the true face of the one who wrote it - with his sincerity, with his conviction ... And my job is to preserve it, as if erasing myself... ["Brownie", 2002.02.04] * infinitive: According to Art. 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights "…everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change my religion or belief and freedom to practice my religion or belief, either alone or in community with others, in public or private order, in teaching, worship, and the performance of religious and ritual orders. 3. the implied subject from the predicate name: Life begins for the sake of life. For some, it is a life for knowledge and meaning. For others, for the sake of symbols. For some - for the sake of distinguishing today's myself from myself yesterday. For others, for the sake of distinguishing themselves from others. [Vladislav Inozemtsev, Irina Pruss. Problems for us, our children and grandchildren // "Knowledge is power", No. 9, 2003] 4. implied subject of a one-part sentence: * imperative: please myself and your loved ones with a flower arrangement in an elegant vase. ["Dasha", No. 10, 2004] * definitely personal: And all our lives we will myself hold it by the throat! [Vasily Shukshin. Cuckoo Tears (1968)] * indefinitely personal: The clarity and simplicity of his language deserve special attention and praise in our time, when in other journals even yourself in particular honor the obscurity, heaviness and curlyness of the syllable, probably thinking that all this contributes to thoughtfulness. [F. M. Dostoevsky, Mr. Bov and the question of art (1861)] * generalized-personal: As they say, in a strange monastery with their the statute does not climb. [Boris Grishchenko. Stranger in the Kremlin (2004)] 5. semantic subject expressed by the addition of an abstract name in the genitive or instrumental case: Poetry with its pink tears and the poet's tender pity for to myself... - poetry, I say, is in essence the most striking denial of genuine suffering and burning compassion. [AND. F. Annensky. Second Book of Reflections (1909)] Accordingly, psychological health is the result of an individual gaining himself and manifests itself in a sense of the authenticity of being. ["Questions of psychology", 2004.12.14] 6. name of the person: Have you heard beyond the grove the voice of the night singer of love, the singer his sadness? [BUT. C. Pushkin. Singer (1816)] Rassadin manages to unravel the most complicated and tight knot of relationships: the poet as a performer his poems - the actor as a student of the poet - the actor as an interpreter and "co-author" of the poet. [Mikhail Kozakov. Acting book (1978-1995)] Reflexivization, i.e. the use of a reflexive pronoun expressing coreference, if possible, is often mandatory. Yes, you can't say He poured water on him, if we are talking about the same person - you need to use a reflexive pronoun: He doused himself with water. With first person pronouns, reflexivization is less obligatory: I want to introduce you to my wife. The reflexive pronoun has more possibilities than the personal one. This is seen in distributive (situation with multiple participants) and modal (conditional mood) context. See example (1) from and (2) from : (1) a. Only I felt sorry for my dog ​​≠ b. I just felt sorry for my dog. (2) a. Even in this situation, I wouldn't be able to hit my wife ≠ b. Even in this situation, I wouldn't be able to hit my wife. In (1a) noun phrase my dog denotes a specific animal, and in (1b) dogs are different for different people; noun phrase my wife in (2a) denotes a particular person, and his wife in (2b) can refer to different persons at different times (in other words, in different possible worlds). The reflexive pronoun is synonymous with the postfix - Xia in recurrent usage, but with a considerable degree of idiomatization: wash your face not the same as wash yourself. Interrogative-relative pronouns Interrogative-relative pronouns include noun pronouns who what, pronouns-adjectives what, what(in predicative usage), which, whose, obsolete which, pronominal adverbs how, where, where, where, why, why, from what, how much pronoun-numeral how many, predicative pronoun what is). Noun pronouns who and what have, in addition to a constant sign of gender and number (masculine and singular; neuter and singular, respectively), also have a constant sign of animation (animate and inanimate, respectively). These pronouns act in an interrogative (or exclamatory) function: Why anxiety seized this person, and not any other? [“Knowledge is power”, 2003] All of them are children of the revolution, even Annensky, who outlived Chekhov by only five years, but what years! ["Star", No. 11, 2002] and in relative function, as an allied word in a subordinate clause: The poem will be printed here, in Moscow and in Minsk. Don't know, why In Minsk. That's his business. [Yuri Trifonov. Preliminary results (1970)] When I managed to come to their concerts, I always went backstage and saw what kind they had soulful and happy faces in those moments. [AND. A. Arkhipova. Music of Life (1996)] The first example is related to the question ( why in Minsk?) is the so-called indirect question; the second - with an exclamation ( what soulful and happy faces they had!) is an indirect exclamation. Pronouns what and which in compatibility in interrogative and relative functions differ. inanimate what in a relative function, it can replace the names of persons: So sorry for those boys what were shot at the barricades. [LiveJournal entry (2004)] Which in a relative function is the main allied word for relative clauses of any semantics, while interrogative which in the modern language has the semantics of choosing from a limited number of possibilities (and is also used in the set expression what time is it now? and in amplifying contexts like which year, which time‘far from the first’): "Mom, your room is ready." ― " Which my? "― "The one that has always been yours and, I hope, will always be." [I. Grekova. Fracture (1987)] Demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns highlight a fixed element of some set. This semantic class includes units of different morphosyntactic classes: noun pronouns this that; adjectives such, such, such, such, such, such, such, such, this, this; adverbs here, there, here, there, from there, therefore, therefore, then, therefore, then. so, so, so, so. Demonstrative pronouns are characterized by opposition in proximity - distance from the speaker (see above) Some forms of demonstrative pronouns are fixed in the language as part of phraseological units; in the sub-corps 1990-2005 for pronoun this This up to now, up to now, up to this day, up to this day, this time, this second/minute, this moment(and fused from the second half of the XIX century now[right now] , cf. this very hour): It was he who forced himself and submitted to his own will, changing all his ardor to get ready for the road. this very hour on a promise that will be released tomorrow. ["October", No. 8, 2001] this year, for no reason, on this account, bibleisms this mystery is great, the mighty of this world, these little ones; with adverbs - so and so; this way, that way; here and there; here and there. The ironic use is fairly widespread. this: I'm glad you this my status does not scare. [Modern. correspondence (2003)]. Be that as it may, but deeds this organizations really give away the most diverse criminality. [Criminal Chronicle, 2003.07.24] Reciprocal pronouns reciprocal (or reciprocal) pronouns each other, each other and one another, which do not have a nominative case; mean additions, direct and indirect, mutually directed actions. Synonymous with postfix - Xia in one of the classes of its use (see) . With the addition of a pronoun each other and each other have the form of discontinuous word forms with a preposition inserted inside; this is obligatory with primitive prepositions ( together), optionally with some derivatives ( next to each other and around each other) and is unacceptable for other (* thanks to each other). NCR data: Near each other 12:1 Against each other 739:3 (two before 1950); for newspaper building 153:7 Friend instead of friend 0:1 Pronoun one another allows the preposition to be placed only in the middle (* against each other, *thanks to one another). Indefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns ( who-then, what-then, who-someday, what-someday, who-or, what-or, something-who, something-what, someone, something etc.) indicate that the referent (the subject to which the pronoun refers) or its properties are unknown to the participants in the speech situation: Was science wrong or someone didn’t check it, but made it public as a reality, and another myth went around the world (= ‘there was a certain person who didn’t check and made it public, but who exactly is unknown’). [“Knowledge is power”, 2003] someone I instantly realized how, when jumping between two currencies, you can very quickly swap numbers with icons (= ‘the speaker knows who, but does not say it’). ["Autopilot", 2002.08.15] Indefinite pronouns are divided on the basis of referentiality into referent and non-referential. o reference someone, something, something indicate a specific object that exists in reality (in English terminology - specific indefinite). Further, referential pronouns are divided into two classes on the basis of fame - obscurity for the speaker: pronouns are weakly defined () ( somebody, something in meaning something-, as well as one) - express the familiarity of the object for the speaker, who does not assume it is known to the listener (specific known); For example, I will tell you one secret; pronouns of obscurity (series on - then) express the unknownness of the object to the speaker (specific unknown), for example, Someone came to you. o non-referential - either, or, whatever point to a non-specific, non-fixed object, in English terminology - non-specific indefinite, for example: I need someone to pray. Series pronouns not-: someone, something, someone, some Pronouns someone, some indicate reference, known to the speaker and unknown to the listener - otherwise they would not be indefinite: The teacher went to the house someone Kuras, a very good teacher in all subjects, studied with Joseph, and grandfather himself studied with him, like a simple schoolboy ... [Anatoly Rybakov. Heavy sand (1975-1977)] And then one morning some a young man in a white coat… so neat… a shirt, a tie with him… a smile… The mood is rosy — it’s not every day that such an accelerator is launched. He has a notebook, a pen - all honor by honor. He approaches, therefore, to the console ... [Andrey Volos. Real Estate (2000) // New World, No. 1-2, 2001] In particular, the pronouns of this series can be used in an introductory function (the introduction of new characters and circumstances at the beginning of the text, cf. In some realm...): Some A banker once asked M. Twain: - How can you explain that you have so many brains and so little money?! “You see,” the writer replied, “nature loves balance. - On average, you and I are equal. [Collection of jokes: personalities (1970-2000)] Pronouns someone, something sometimes they can indicate the unknown to the speaker, i.e. used in the meaning of the pronoun series - then: Encouraged by these clear signs of life, I turn the corner and again see something human: someone in white jumps and kicks with his bare feet in the chest of another in white. [Vasily Aksenov. Round the clock non-stop // "New World", No. 8, 1976] Series on - then Pronouns for - then express referentiality and uncertainty to the speaker: I held my breath and listened. There really was someone in the apartment. - What if it's thieves? [Andrey Gelasimov. Fox Mulder looks like a pig (2001)] Pronoun for - then can be used in the meaning of ‘something’, i.e. not in its basic meaning: “But someone has to be in hell, too?! she repeats, nodding good-naturedly at her joke, which she seems to enjoy very much. [Marina Paley. Commemoration (1987)] Series pronouns - then may also have an introductory function: Some literate cook from the kitchen ran away with his own to the tavern. [Krylov] Series on - someday The meanings of non-referential indefinite pronouns are determined on the basis of certain semantic features and context types in which the pronouns are used. Pronouns for someday means that one possibility (alternative) is considered against the background of others (the context of “withdrawn assertiveness”: ). Such a background may occur: (a) a situation referred to the future; (b) in an alternative situation, including those related to the past or present; (c) in the context of distributivity. (a) the future grammatical bud. time: He will speak any objections; We will meet somewhere. setting for the future, in particular, please: He wants somewhere go; seeks anything learn about you; looking for anything interesting for you; asks anything read. imperative (not only in the context of a speech act of permission, but also of an order): Tell anything! sing to us some romance! Bring me immediately some chair. modality of possibility and necessity: He can/should someone to invite; have to someone call; necessary someone to invite. subjunctive, optative: It would be nice if he brought anything eat; I agree anything do for him. To anything do need money. (b) Alternative situation (in) certainty, presumption: I don't think he anything knew about it; I doubt that he anything made; They hardly somewhere left; Knowingly it anyone invited; It's strange that he anything found; If he anything brought (yesterday)! a question, including a rhetorical one; interrogative suggestion: anyone came? Is it really someone Do you have any doubts that this is so? disjunction: He took Masha with him or someone from her friends. If he anything concealed, he will pay for it; epistemic modality: anyone could offend her. negation in the subordinating predication: I don't think he anything changed. (c) distributivity Everyone someone bring with him; Every noun phrase is some an object. [Paducheva 2007] Pronouns with negative polarization:- or and whatever Pronouns for - or and whatever refer to pronouns with negative polarization. In other words, they gravitate toward a negative context. In some contexts they are interchangeable with negative pronouns: They didn't meet any / whatever /no resistance along the way I don't intend anything change ≈ b. I don't intend nothing change When negated in the main clause in the subordinate clause, only or or whatever, but not a negative pronoun: It is not known whether this story was ever (*never) finished Pronouns for - or and whatever, unlike negative pronouns, can be used in the context of implicit negation, expressed in the lexical meaning of the word: the world today is completely devoid of any / whatever moral prejudice Like other words with negative polarization (see Haspelmath 1997), pronouns in - or and whatever are also possible in the context of a conditional sentence and an equivalent gerund participle, in the context of a higher generality and some others: Deciding any / whatever particular task, one must think about the language as a whole. Albanian extremists seek to destroy everything in Kosovo and Metohija whatever Serbian signs. Semantic map of indefinite pronouns By superimposing the semantic features of pronouns on context types, indefinite pronouns can be represented as a semantic map (the idea of ​​a semantic map and a map for Russian pronouns was proposed by M. Haspelmat). The semantic map is a semantic network of "functions" that defines the meaning or contexts of the use of indefinite pronouns. These functions are as follows: referentiality, fame to the speaker (specific known): pronouns in something, something, someone, some: But what to do? he chuckled. - You have to be objective. One pope is only infallible, and even then in this someone doubts! Eh, Hans? [YU. O. Dombrovsky. The monkey comes for his skull. Prologue (1943-1958)] But if someone thinks that Mikhail Nikolaevich Rumyantsev (Pencil) was a non-drinker, he is very mistaken... [I. E. Keogh. Illusions without illusions (1995-1999)] This is all because someone too narrow doors! - No, it's because someone eating too much! [Winnie the Pooh and all-all-all, trans. B. Zakhoder (1960)] referential, unknown to the speaker (specific unknown): pronouns in - then, someone, something: I held my breath and listened. In the apartment really someone was. - What if it's thieves? [Andrey Gelasimov. Fox Mulder looks like a pig (2001)] non-referentiality in irreal predications (irrealis non-specific, cf. "existential noun phrases" [Paducheva 1985: 94-95]): pronouns in - then, -someday: -That also used in the sense someday: But after all someone should be and in hell?! she repeats, nodding good-naturedly at her joke, which she seems to enjoy very much. [Marina Paley. Commemoration (1987)] Some will say that any sport is good because it is not predictable, but this idea is good for the fans. [Izvestia, 2002.12.22] - Is there anyone here? There is no one, don't be afraid. [Alexey Varlamov. Kupavna // Novy Mir, No. 11-12, 2000] The brothers did not let her out of their sight, because since they like the girl, someone will want to steal her, and definitely the one with whom the girl's family does not want to be related. [Fazil Iskander. Word (1980-1990)] non-referentiality in a general question (questions): pronouns in - someday, -then: - Maybe someone wants to add? I ask, although I know there is nothing to add. [Bulat Okudzhava. Brand New (1962)] You got married? - Not. - Do you have someone? - Not. “So you definitely don’t want to meet me?” Think well. [AND. Grekov. Fracture (1987)] In a general question, there may be a semantic difference between -then and –something- pronouns: Do you have someone?- assumption, i.e. reference, and Do you have anyone?- a real question, non-reference. in a conditional sentence (conditionals): pronouns in - then, -someday, -or. The context of the conditional sentence allows, but does not require, non-referentiality. Referential pronoun - then can be used in non-referential usage: And if someone he decides to break it, let him first think carefully about what the consequences may be. ["Results", 2003.03.04] If a anyone says that I have received a higher education - spit on this person. [BUT. N. Tolstoy. Black Friday (1924)] You must immediately report to the chairman if anyone tried to discuss the criminal case with you. [The ice broke (2003) // "Newspaper", 2003.07.02] non-referential with indirect negation (indirect negation), pronouns on - or, whatever: To be honest, I don't think anyone could have done a better job that day. ["Formula", 2001.04.15] Do not use any powders to clean the refrigerator. [Refrigerator Instructions (1980)] Various indulgences were made, anti-Jewish speeches, discrimination, and any racist antics were prohibited. [Daniil Granin. Bison (1987)] These rights consist in the fact that foreigners can buy land, natural resources, media, in short, any national treasure without any restrictions. ["Our Contemporary", 2004.10.15] But I doubt that anyone, even an expert, could explain it. [G. A. Gazdanov. Awakening (1966)] comparative: pronouns ending in - or, whatever, definitive pronoun any: He wondered to himself - how could he think like that about poetry when everything had already been decided, and he knew it very well, better than anyone else? [AT. T. Shalamov. Kolyma stories (1954-1961)] Surprisingly, he managed to do it faster than anyone expected. [Daniil Granin. Bison (1987)] Music, better than anything else, expresses the personal experience, the individuality of each person. [Izvestia, 2002.06.27] When something doesn't work out, you criticize yourself harder than any critic. [Yuri Bashmet. Dream Station (2003)] direct negation, negative pronouns with neither-: No one will ever know the whole truth. [Izvestia, 2003.02.12] free-choice meaning, definitive pronoun any: Just wait until June and go to Ryazan, to Kalyaev Street - anyone will show it there. [Martial Art of the Planet, 2003.10.18] There it is generally unthinkable that in response to “you”, anyone (except teachers) could say “you”: this is extreme bad manners. [AND. M. Dyakonov. Book of memories. Chapter Three (1926-1928) (1995)] Semantic map of Russian indefinite pronouns Interrogative pronouns in the function of indefinite In certain contexts, the indefinite formant may be omitted. Wed the use of indefinite pronouns in conditional subordinate clauses and an indirect question (see): Conditional sentences: If something worthwhile comes out, we will only be happy. "["Gazeta", 2003.06.20] - And if someone comes, light the green lamp. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Lady Macbeth (1970)] Indirect question: I thought and thought and still called to ask if I needed anything. [Vera Belousova. Second Shot (2000)] Out of the corner of my eye, I tried to see if anyone was near the car. [Andrey Gelasimov. You Can (2001)] Indefinite pronominal expressions In addition to these traditional, or "serial" pronouns, the category of indefinite pronouns includes: (a) reduplicated pronouns like who-who, where-where: Of course, this was not so: for someone, but for Chekhov, it was enough just to look around to find material for stories. ["Our contemporary", 2004.07.15] Someone who, and he - could not help but know. [US Bulletin, 2003.10.01] - Well, I think you, as scouts, are already somewhere, but you will be able to penetrate into the Litfond. [Vladimir Voinovich. Case No. 34840 (1999)] (b) a series based on demonstrative pronouns with the formant - then (there, such and such, therefore…) What, the father himself said to someone: “Then and then they will attempt on me, but they won’t kill me, so you’ll come and figure it out”? [Vera Belousova. Second Shot (2000)] But was there a specific conversation called? Any phrases, anecdotes, jokes? Specifically, specifically. Then something, there something. - Specifically, no. “And Clara told you all this when you were waiting for me on the bench today. Clear. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Faculty of Useless Things Part 1 (1978)] All stories have been published many times. So-and-so wrote about them, they were approved there and there. In essence, this is quite enough for the editor. ["October", No. 8, 2001] (c) some words of other parts of speech and combinations that perform the function of an indefinite reference: for example, the numeral one; adjectives definite; famous,combinations of type one or the other. (d) pronominal units with a prepositive component, "amalgams" (based on Lakoff's terminology) - pronominal constructions based on slusing, dunno-type according to Haspelmath): I don’t know when, I don’t know who, God knows why, (it’s not) clear what, I don’t remember how, (yourself) you understand why, it doesn’t matter where ... (e) pronominal units with a postpositive component, "quasi-relatives" - pronominal series based on topless relative clauses: whatever you want, anywhere, anyone, how it goes... more Scheme 2. Semantic map of Russian indefinite pronouns and pronominal expressions negative pronouns, Negative pronouns indicate the absence of a referent: none, nothing,none, none, none, not at all, nowhere, nowhere, nowhere, never, nothing, nothing, predicative pronouns no one, nothing, nowhere, nowhere, nowhere, nowhere, nowhere Normative in constructions of the form none other (other) than ... none other (other) than ... a separately written particle not, in the absence of union as- continuous negative pronouns ( only you and no one else). However, in real texts, including literary ones, spelling variability is presented at this point: Negative pronouns on neither- require a "double negation" - a particle appears with the verb not: What I will do now no one should offend or offend. [Evgeny Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)] However, in a number of contexts, one negation appears: You came to Russia from nowhere[BUT. A. Akhmatova, A poem without a hero] Who was nothing will become everything[translation of The Internationale by A. Kotz; French in the original requires double negation - nous ne sommes rien, soyons tout] Predicative pronouns in not- do not require a second negation: Then I just had from him nowhere to go. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Keeper of Antiquities Part 1 (1964)] She understood: dissatisfaction not going anywhere, but, on the contrary, accumulate. [“New World”, No. 9, 2002] Definitive pronominal words The next three classes are traditionally grouped under the name of "defining pronominal words". Semantically, they are quite heterogeneous. Universal pronouns Universal pronouns are quantifier words of two types: * Pronouns indicating the whole set: all, everything, all, every, every way, in every way, everywhere, everywhere, from everywhere The use of type pronouns all indicates that the selected subset, which has a certain attribute, coincides with the entire set: And all these photographs, in which she is so beautiful, will become not just photographs, but, ... like, documents ..., or ... documentary evidence ... of the last century. [Evgeny Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]. Pronouns indicating an arbitrary set object: anyone, everyone, anyone, as well as a series of pronouns on whatever: whatever, whatever, whoever. Uses of type pronouns any indicates the selection of an arbitrary element from the set, each of which has the property of interest: Please contribute to any of these international charities that really help victims all over the world, as well as accepting contributions to help people who are affected by the earthquake and tsunami in Asia. [Electronic announcement (2005)] * Universal pronouns that have both uses: always and everywhere: Ivan Nikolaevich always[=every time] finds this inhabitant of the mansion in the same dreamy pose, with his eyes turned to the moon. [M. A. Bulgakov. Master and Margarita, part 2 (1929-1940)] Moreover, it will not take much time, and all you need - gel, curlers and hair dryer - always present in the arsenal of the modern fashionista. ["Dasha", No. 10, 2004] Emphasizing-excretory polysemantic words: Pronouns most, himself have the meaning of ‘independence’ ( he himself came here - without the help of crutches) and ‘meaningful personal involvement’ ( he himself came here- rather than sent someone), ‘limit’ ( until the end), ‘identities’ ( the same). They have the semantics ‘main part’ in a number of contexts: I also like IvRoshevsky gel, but only one, transparent packaging, green lid, white itself. [Beauty, health, recreation: Cosmetics and perfume (forum) (2004)] Combined with an adjective most forms an analytic superlative: They bent their fingers - they say, we are the coolest, give us politics - so that we are as rich as Khloponin, famous as Lebed, economic as Pimashkov, and even cheerful as Zhirinovsky. [Izvestia, 2002.10.01] Myself reinforces reflexive pronouns: Here is the festival of fundamental principles, to which a person alienated from himself returns. [Recipes of national cuisines: France (2000-2005)] Words that mean 'other': different, different, different, different, different. Possessive pronouns Sometimes, as a special class, possessive pronouns of different grammatical categories are distinguished, corresponding to personal ( mine, yours, ours, yours), return ( mine) and interrogative-relative ( whose). From them, in turn, pronominal adverbs are formed ( in my opinion, in your opinion...). How possessive pronouns function historical forms of the genitive case of personal pronouns him, her, them, analyzed in NKRY as indeclinable pronouns-adjectives. Non-normative (dialect or vernacular) pronouns-adjectives are currently widespread and widely represented in the NKRY his(spelled as evo(th)ny), her (th) ny, eh and especially theirs, which is also found in the author's literary speech up to the first half of the 20th century: This people is divided into 3 parts, their way hundreds are called: Large, Medium and Small, and each has its own khan. [AT. N. Tatishchev. Russian history. Ch. 13-18 (1739-1750)] But, it is true, she immediately imagined that he was going to other rooms, since theirs was a pass. [F. M. Dostoevsky. Crime and Punishment (1866)]. The corresponding pronominal adverbs are stylistically marked as colloquial and have the form by him, by her(sometimes written with a hyphen): I immediately push Kirill into the conversation, I ask Kesha what, his way, better: humanity, reduced to a shelter inhabited by writers - or, figuratively speaking, desertion and ice? [Anatoly Naiman. Love Interest (1998-1999)] And that cannot be, because a socialist cannot even imagine how one can voluntarily give oneself for all, according to him, it's immoral. [F. M. Dostoevsky. Notebooks (1850-1881)] Academic grammars (1980, 1989) categorize possessive adjectives according to the semantic categories to which they refer. My, yours, ours, yours, his, in my opinion etc. are personal, mine and in my own way- to returnable Classification of semantic categories of adjectives according to the principle of deixis, anaphora and status of reference Reference status amplifying ( myself) + (by myself) Refundable Mutual Possessive Interrogative-relative pointing Undefined Negative Generalities Statistics Morphosyntactic subclasses Throughout the main body (excluding PRAEDICPRO from the body with removed homonymy) from pronouns By corpus with homonymy removed from pronouns with significant words of the same class By oral corpus from pronouns with significant words of the same class When analyzing the data, it should be taken into account that the NCRL markup is based on the Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language (where only no one and nothing) and a list of pronominal adverbs from Ozhegov's dictionary. In addition, the litter PRAEDICPRO is present only in the subcorpus with removed homonymy (however, due to the low frequency of these words, this is not significant). When comparing the frequency of pronouns per unit of text in the entire corpus and in the corpus with removed homonymy, the percentage indicators predictably decrease due to the elimination of homonyms (note that in the corpus with unresolved homonymy at certain points, the sum of percentages for all parts of speech, of course, is higher than 100%) . At the same time, the distribution of pronominal words by morphosyntactic subclasses shows statistical stability: about half of the pronominal words are pronouns-nouns, about a third are pronominal adjectives, and the rest are pronominal adverbs. This order in frequency coincides with the frequency of the words of the corresponding significant parts of speech, however, it is noteworthy that all three "large" morphosyntactic classes, including both the significant parts of speech and the corresponding class of pronominal words, have different "pronominal potential". This is the ratio of pronominal words in a given morphosyntactic class to its total volume. Classes for significant parts of speech are constructed as follows: substantives (nouns), adjectives (adjectives, except for brief and comparatives, non-short participles, ordinal numbers), adverbials (adverbs and gerunds). Despite the fact that, in general, noun pronouns, as we have seen, are much more frequent than pronouns of other classes, for adjectives and adverbials, the pronominal index is one and a half to two times higher than substantives, in other words, the definition and circumstance are one and a half to two times more often expressed by a pronominal word than an actant. . Moreover, these data demonstrate statistical stability, which can be seen from a comparison of data for the entire main corpus and the dehomonymized corpus, except that the indicators for adjectives in the dehomonymized corpus are somewhat lower (due to the elimination of high-frequency substantiated pronominal adjectives like that, that, everything, which are classified in the corpus with removed homonymy as noun pronouns). When comparing these data with those of the oral corpus, it should be taken into account that the texts of the oral corpus with removed homonymy are currently not available for search. Nevertheless, these data are already sufficient to conclude that the frequency of pronominal words in oral speech differs significantly from that in written speech. First, the rates of frequency per unit of text are significantly higher for pronouns and pronominal adverbs (and to a much lesser extent for pronominal adjectives); it is natural to associate this with the dialogism and deicticity of oral speech, with the widespread use of personal pronouns and other means of deixis; the role of pronominal words is noticeable among the discursive markers that connect oral speech and are normally omitted in written texts (including hesitating pauses: like this, this, all this, that is). Secondly, the “pronominal potential” of large syntactic classes gives completely different absolute indicators compared to the statistically very stable data of written texts. For all three classes, it is much higher than in written texts, but here the differences with the written language, on the contrary, are the strongest for pronominal adjectives, which for the first time receive an absolute majority in their syntactic class: 60% of adjectives in the corpus are represented by pronominal words. At the same time, the ratios of these indicators to each other are close to the data of the written texts of the main corpus (which indicates the general language nature of these relations themselves) - for adjectives it is twice as high as for substantives, for adverbials it is also noticeably higher, although to a lesser extent. These data can be explained both by the mentioned deicticity and dialogicity of oral speech, and, for adjectives, by the low frequency of full participles in it. The similarity between written and oral texts, and, consequently, the general language regularity should be seen in the distribution of pronominal words according to syntactic subclasses; in essence, these are the same numbers (about half of nouns, about a third of adjectives, about a fifth of adverbs). Semantic subclasses Main building From place names. Removed homonymy From place names. Refundable Possessive Interrogative/relative pointing Undefined Negative Quantifier (definitive) The calculation for semantic subclasses was carried out according to the semantic markup of pronouns, where possessive pronouns are distinguished as a separate class. The sum for the subcorpus with removed homonymy differs slightly from the sum for morphosyntactic digits; this is due both to unresolved polysemy in the semantic markup, and to ambiguous points in the morphological markup, where homonymy is not removed. This fact has no statistical significance. The general language patterns should include the high frequency of three classes - personal, demonstrative and interrogative-relative pronouns (in that order); more often the language resorts to the pronominal expression of deixis and anaphora, less often - the status of reference. The distribution by types of pronouns in written texts with removed and not removed homonymy is essentially the same. Attention is drawn to the statistically significant difference - almost two times - for interrogative-relative pronouns, which are much more common in the corpus with unresolved homonymy. Apparently, this is due to the genre distribution of texts in both samples; The issue needs further research. According to this parameter, the main corpus as a whole, in contrast to the subcorpus with removed homonymy, is closer to the corpus of oral texts; apparently, this meaning is closer to the common language. When comparing the data of written texts with the data of the corpus of oral texts, a number of discrepancies are revealed. The most noticeable of them is that demonstrative pronouns are used much more often; in this, the deixis characteristic of colloquial speech and indicators of the coherence of the text play a role. Dialogicity and a large number of interrogative sentences, apparently, are associated with a high rate of interrogative-relative pronouns (distinguishing oral texts from at least some written texts included in the subcorpus with unresolved homonymy). At the same time, the share of personal pronouns, also predominantly deictic, is generally the same as in the written text. The growth in the share of demonstrative pronouns is due to the fall of definitive and indefinite pronouns; thus a logical qualification of statuses of reference like all, any, each, some, any etc. turns out to be somewhat more characteristic of written speech. Bibliography Levin Yu. I. On the semantics of pronouns // Problems of grammatical modeling, M., 1973 Paducheva E.V. Statement and its relation to reality. M., 1985 Podlesskaya V.I. Issues of Lexical and Syntactic Semantics: Anaphora in Modern Japanese. M., 1990 Kibrik A. A., Plungyan V. A. Functionalism // Fundamental trends in modern American linguistics. Ed. A.A. Kibrik, I.M. Kobozeva and I.A. Sekerina. M., 1997 Apresyan Yu. D., Iomdin L. L. Type constructions nowhere to sleep Keywords: syntax, semantics, lexicography. // Semiotics and informatics, vol. 29., 1989 Evtyukhin V. B. Pronoun // Bogdanov S. I. et al. Morphology of the modern Russian language. St. Petersburg State University, 2008 Tatevosov S. G. Semantics of the constituents of the noun phrase: quantifier words. Moscow: IMLI RAN, 2002 Anna Siewierska. person. Cambridge, CUP, 2004. Paul Garde. Le mot, l'accent, la phrase. P. : IES, 2006 Martin Haspelmath. Indefinite pronouns. Oxford: OUP, 1997

A pronoun is a special class of significant words that point to a subject without naming it. To avoid tautology in speech, the speaker may use a pronoun. Examples: I, yours, who, this, everyone, the most, the whole, myself, mine, another, another, that, somehow, someone, something, etc.

As can be seen from the examples, pronouns are most often used instead of a noun, and also instead of an adjective, numeral or adverb.

Pronouns tend to be divided into categories according to their meaning. This part of speech focuses on names. In other words, pronouns replace nouns, adjectives, numerals. However, the peculiarity of pronouns is that, replacing names, they do not acquire their meaning. According to the established tradition, only inflected words belong to pronouns. All invariable words are treated as pronominal adverbs.

This article will present the meaning and grammatical features, as well as examples of sentences in which certain pronouns are used.

Table of pronouns by category

Personal pronouns	I, you, we, you, he, she, it, they
reflexive pronoun
Possessive pronouns	mine, yours, ours, yours
Demonstrative pronouns	this, that, such, so many
Definitive pronouns	himself, the most, all, everyone, each, any, other, other
Interrogative pronouns	who, what, which, which, whose, how much, which
Relative pronouns	who, what, how, which, which, whose, how much, which
Negative pronouns	no one, nothing, none, no one, no one, nothing
Indefinite pronouns	someone, something, some, some, a few

Pronouns are divided into three categories:

1. Pronominal nouns.
2. Pronoun adjectives.
3. Pronominal numerals.

Personal pronouns

Words that indicate persons and objects that are participants in a speech act are called "personal pronouns". Examples: I, you, we, you, he, she, it, they. I, you, we, you denote participants in speech communication. The pronouns he, she, they do not participate in the speech act, they are reported by the speaker as non-participants in the speech act.

• I know what you want to tell me. (Participant in a speech act, object.)
• You must read all the fiction on the list. (The subject to which the action is directed.)
• We have had a wonderful holiday this year! (Participants of the speech act, subjects.)
• You played your part perfectly! (The addressee, the object to which the appeal is directed in the speech act.)
• He prefers a quiet pastime. (Non-participant in the speech act.)
• Is she definitely going to America this summer? (Non-participant in the speech act.)
• They jumped with a parachute for the first time in their lives and were very pleased. (Non-participant in the speech act.)

Attention! The pronouns his, her, their, depending on the context, can be used both in the category of possessive and in the category of personal pronouns.

Compare:

• He was not at school today, neither at the first nor at the last lesson. - His performance at school depends on how often he attends classes. (In the first sentence, his is a personal pronoun in the genitive; in the second sentence, his is a possessive pronoun.)
• I asked her to keep this conversation between us. She ran, her hair flowing in the wind, and the silhouette was lost and lost with every second, moving away and dissolving in the light of day.
• They should always be asked to turn the music down. - Their dog very often howls at night, as if yearning for some unbearable grief of his.

reflexive pronoun

This category includes the pronoun itself - indicates the person of the object or addressee, which are identified with the actor. This function is performed by reflexive pronouns. Suggestion examples:

• I have always considered myself the happiest person in the whole wide world.
• She constantly admires herself.
• He does not like to make mistakes and trusts only himself.

May I keep this kitten?

Possessive pronouns

A word that indicates the belonging of a person or object to another person or object is called a "possessive pronoun". Example: mine, yours, ours, yours, yours. Possessive pronouns indicate belonging to the speaker, interlocutor or non-participant in the act of speech.

• My The decision is always the correct one.
• Your wishes will surely come true.
• Our the dog behaves very aggressively towards passers-by.
• Your the choice will be yours.
• Finally I got mine present!
• Their keep your thoughts to yourself.
• My the city misses me and I feel like I miss it.

Words like her, him, them can act as a personal pronoun in or as possessive pronoun. Suggestion examples:

• Them the car is at the entrance. - They haven't been in the city for 20 years.
• His the bag is on the chair. - He was asked to bring tea.
• Her the house is located in the city center. - They made her the queen of the evening.

The belonging of a person (object) to a group of objects also indicates a possessive pronoun. Example:

• Our Joint trips will be remembered to me for a long time!

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative is the second name of the demonstrative pronoun. Examples: this, that, such, so much. These words distinguish one or another object (person) from a number of other similar objects, persons or signs. This function is performed by the demonstrative pronoun. Examples:

• This the novel is much more interesting and informative than all those that I have read before. (Pronoun this distinguishes one object from a number of similar ones, indicates the peculiarity of this object.)

Pronoun This also performs this function.

• This is sea, these the mountains, This the sun will forever remain in my memory the brightest memory.

However, you should be careful with the definition of the part of speech and not confuse the demonstrative pronoun with the particle!

Compare examples of demonstrative pronouns:

• This is it was excellent! - Did you play the part of the fox in the school play? (In the first case, This is a pronoun and fulfills the predicate. In the second case This- the particle has no syntactic role in the sentence.)
• That the house is much older and more beautiful than this one. (Pronoun that selects an object, points to it.)
• Neither such, no other option suited him. (Pronoun such helps to focus on one of the many subjects.)
• So many once he stepped on the same rake, and again he repeats everything anew. (Pronoun so many emphasizes repetition.

Definitive pronouns

Examples of pronouns: himself, the most, all, everyone, each, any, other, other. This category is divided into sub-categories, each of which includes the following pronouns:

1.Himself, the most- pronouns that have a distinguishing function. They elevate the object in question, individualize it.

• Myself director - Alexander Yaroslavovich - was present at the party.
• He was offered most a highly paid and prestigious job in our city.
• Most The greatest happiness in life is to love and be loved.
• Samo Her Majesty condescended to praise me.

2.Whole- a pronoun that has the meaning of the breadth of coverage of a characteristic of a person, object or feature.

• Whole the city came to watch him perform.
• All the road passed in remorse and the desire to return home.
• Everything The sky was covered with clouds, and not a single gap was visible.

3. Anyone, everyone, anyone- pronouns denoting the freedom to choose from several objects, persons or features (provided that they exist at all).

• Semen Semenovich Laptev - a master of his craft - this is for you any will say.
• Any a person is able to achieve what he wants, the main thing is to make an effort and not be lazy.
• Each blade of grass, everyone petal breathed life, and this desire for happiness was transmitted to me more and more.
• Anything the word he said turned against him, but he did not seek to correct it.

4.Other, other- pronouns that have the meaning of non-identity with what was said earlier.

• I chose different a path that was more accessible to me.
• Imagine another Would you have done the same in my place?
• AT different once he comes home, silently, eats and goes to bed, today everything was different ...
• The medal has two sides - another I did not notice.

Interrogative pronouns

Examples of pronouns: who, what, which, which, whose, how much, which.

Interrogative pronouns include a question about persons, objects or phenomena, quantities. A sentence that contains an interrogative pronoun usually ends with a question mark.

• Who Was that the man who came to us this morning?
• What what will you do when the summer exams are over?
• What there should be a portrait of an ideal person, and how do you imagine him?
• Which of these three people could know what really happened?
• Whose is it a briefcase?
• How much is the red dress which did you come to school yesterday?
• Which your favorite time of the year?
• whose I saw a child in the yard yesterday?
• how Do you think I need to enter the Faculty of International Relations?

Relative pronouns

Examples of pronouns: who, what, how, which, which, whose, how much, which.

Attention! These pronouns can act as both relative and interrogative pronouns, depending on whether they are used in a particular context. In a complex sentence (CSP), only a relative pronoun is used. Examples:

• how are you making a biscuit pie with cherry filling? - She told how she makes a cherry pie.

In the first case as - the pronoun has an interrogative function, i.e. the subject concludes a question about a certain object and about the method of obtaining it. In the second case, the pronoun as is used as a relative pronoun and acts as a connecting word between the first and second simple sentences.

• Who knows in which the sea flows into the Volga river? - He did not know who this man was to him, and what could be expected from him.
• What do you need to do to get a good job? - He knew what to do in order to get a well-paid job.

What- pronoun - is used both as a relative and as an interrogative pronoun, depending on the context.

• What shall we do tonight? - You said that today we should visit grandma.

To accurately determine the category of pronouns, choosing between relative and interrogative, you need to remember that the interrogative pronoun in a sentence can be replaced by a verb, a noun, a numeral, depending on the context. The relative pronoun cannot be replaced.

• What do you want to have dinner tonight? - I would like vermicelli for dinner.
• Which do you like the color? - Do you like purple?
• Whose is this a house? - Is this your mother's house?
• Which are you in line? Are you eleventh in line?
• How much do you have candy? - Do you have six sweets?

A similar situation with the pronoun than. Compare examples of relative pronouns:

• What would you like to do for the weekend? He completely forgot what wanted to do it for the weekend. (As we can see, in the second version the pronoun how enters the category of relative and performs a connecting function between the two parts of a complex sentence.)
• How did you get into my house yesterday? - Anna Sergeevna looked at the boy inquiringly and did not understand how he got into her house.
• How does it feel to know that you are in trouble? - I know for myself what it's like to realize that your plans are collapsing rapidly and irrevocably.
• How many times do I ask you not to do this again? - She has already lost count, which time her son brought his class teacher to tears.
• Whose car is parked at the gate of my house? - He was at a loss, so he could not figure out whose idea it was to provoke a fight.
• How much is this Persian kitten worth? - He was told how much a red Persian kitten costs.
• Who knows what year the Battle of Borodino took place? - Three students raised their hands: they knew in what year the Battle of Borodino took place.

Some scholars propose to combine relative and interrogative pronouns into one category and call them "interrogative-relative pronouns". Examples:

• Who's here? He didn't see who was here.

However, at present, it has not yet been possible to reach a common agreement, and the categories of interrogative and relative pronouns continue to exist separately from each other.

Negative pronouns

Examples of pronouns: no one, nothing, none, no one, no one, nothing. Negative pronouns have the meaning of the absence of persons, objects, and also to indicate their negative characteristics.

• None didn't know what to expect from him.
• Nothing he was not so interested that he could devote his whole life to this cause.
• No debt and none money could not keep him from running away.
• A lonely dog ​​ran along the road, and it seemed that she had never had a master, a home and tasty food in the morning; She was draw.
• He tried to find excuses for himself, but it turned out that everything happened precisely on his initiative, and no one was to blame.
• He was completely nothing to do, so he walked slowly through the rain past the glowing shop windows and watched the oncoming cars passing by.

Indefinite pronouns

From interrogative or relative pronouns, an indefinite pronoun is formed. Examples: someone, something, some, some, several Indefinite pronouns contain the meaning of an unknown, indefinite person or object. Also, indefinite pronouns have the meaning of deliberately concealed information that the speaker specifically does not want to communicate.

Such properties have Examples for comparison:

• someone's the voice was heard in the darkness, and I did not quite understand to whom it belonged: a man or a beast. (Lack of information from the speaker.) - This letter was from my no one an acquaintance who had been absent from our city for a long time and was now about to come. (Intentionally withheld information from listeners.)
• Something an incredible thing happened that night: the wind tore and threw leaves from the trees, lightning flashed and pierced the sky through and through. (Instead of something you can substitute indefinite pronouns similar in meaning: something, something.)
• Some of my friends consider me a strange and wonderful person: I do not strive to earn a lot of money and live in a small old house on the edge of the village . (Pronoun some can be replaced by the following pronouns: someone, a few.)
• Some a pair of shoes, a backpack and a tent were already packed and waiting for us to pack up and leave far, far from the city. (The subject does not specify the number of items, generalizes their number.)
• someone informed me that you received a letter, but do not want to acknowledge in e volume.(The speaker deliberately hides any information about the face.)
• If a anyone saw this person, please report it to the police!
• anyone knows what Natasha Rostova and Andrei Bolkonsky were talking about at the ball?
• When you see anything interesting, do not forget to write down your observations in a notebook.
• some moments in learning English remained incomprehensible to me, then I returned to the last lesson and tried to go through it again. (Deliberate concealment by the speaker of information.)
• how much I still had money in my purse, but I didn't remember how much. (Lack of information about the subject from the speaker.)

Grammar categories of pronouns

Grammatically, pronouns are divided into three categories:

1. Pronoun noun.
2. Pronoun adjective.
3. Pronominal numeral.

To pronominal noun include such categories of pronouns as: personal, reflexive, interrogative, negative, indefinite. All these digits are likened to nouns in their grammatical properties. However, pronominal nouns have certain features that a pronoun does not have. Examples:

• I came to you . (In this case, this is the masculine gender, which we determined by the past tense verb with a zero ending). - You came to me. (The gender is determined by the end of the verb "came" - feminine,

As you can see from the example, some pronouns are devoid of the category of gender. In this case, the genus can be restored logically, based on the situation.

Other pronouns of the listed categories have the category of gender, but it does not reflect the real relationship between persons and objects. For example, the pronoun who always combined with a past tense masculine verb.

• Who was the first woman in space?
• Ready or not, here I come.
• She knew who would be the next contender for her hand and heart.

The pronoun what is used with past tense neuter nouns.

• What enabled you to do this?
• He did not suspect that something similar to his story could be happening somewhere.

Pronoun is he has generic forms, but the gender here acts as a classification form, and not as a nominative.

To pronominal adjective demonstrative, definitive, interrogative, relative, negative, indefinite pronouns. They all answer the question which? and are likened to adjectives in their properties. They have dependent forms of number and case.

• This tiger cub is the most playful in the zoo.

Pronouns are pronouns as many as, several. They are likened in their meaning in combination with nouns.

• How many books did you read this summer?
• So many opportunities now I had!
• Grandma left a few hot pies for me.

Attention! However, in combination with pronoun verbs how many, how many, several are used as adverbs.

• How much is this orange blouse?
• So much can be spent on vacation.
• I thought a little about how to live and what to do next.

Pronouns are words and phrases belonging to different parts of speech, devoid of their own lexical meaning and in some cases having additional grammatical properties. For example, personal pronouns have a person that other nouns do not have.

This article presents the author's view of pronouns and describes their classification, based primarily on the common meaning and, secondly, on the similarity of grammatical properties. The proposed classification in a number of points diverges from the generally accepted one, and therefore schoolchildren are not recommended to pass off this work as their own if they are not ready to explain the logic of the views presented here.

	Nouns		adjectives		Numerals	Adverbs
				At-heavy		Locations and destinations			time	mode of action	Causes	Goals
	Odush	neod
	I			my
	you			your
	he, it			his
	she is			her
	we			our
	you			your
	they			them
	myself			mine
	other, different		other, other, different, others	another, different	different amount, not so much, ...	somewhere else, somewhere else...	somewhere else, ...	from somewhere else...	another time, not now...	differently, different, different...	for another reason...	for a different purpose...
	this, this, this, these		this (such, this, that, that)	this	(so much estol)	here, here, here (here)	here	from here (from here)	now, now	(like, like, like that)	therefore (therefore)	behind this (behind)
	that, that, that, those		that, such (such)	Togo	so much (table)	there	there	from there (from there)	then	So	because, so far	then
	who	what	which, which, which	whose	how many	where	where	from where (where from)	when	as	why, why, because of what, since	why
	someone	something	some	someone	some	somewhere	somewhere	somewhere	sometime	somehow	for some reason	for some reason
	someone	something	some	someone's	some	somewhere	somewhere	from somewhere	once upon a time	somehow	for some reason	for some reason
	someone	something	some, some, one		a few a lot, a few				once
	anyone	anything	any	someone else	any	anywhere	somewhere	from somewhere	ever	somehow	for some reason	for some reason
	anyone	anything	some	somebody	any	somewhere	somewhere	somewhere	someday	somehow	for some reason	for some reason
	Similar meanings are characteristic, apparently, only of adverbial pronouns.					places, here and there	in all directions		sometimes, occasionally, from time to time	differently, then so, then so
	anyone	anything	any, any, any, any, each	anyone	as much as you like	everywhere	anywhere	from anywhere	whenever	as you wish	whatever	whatever
	all	all	the whole			everywhere, everywhere, everywhere, everywhere	in all directions (in all directions)	from everywhere	always (always)	in every way, and so, and so, in every way, in every way (every way)
	none	nothing	none, none	nobody's	not at all	nowhere	nowhere	out of nowhere	never	no way	for no reason	useless
Negative predicates	no one	nothing				nowhere	nowhere	nowhere	once		for no reason, for no reason	no need

Obsolete and stylistically colored words are given in brackets in the table.

The table above offers an option for dividing pronouns into:

• classes according to correlation with different parts of speech (laid horizontally);
• semantic-syntactic categories (lined vertically).

Semantic-syntactic categories are formed according to the principle of common meaning. Moreover, in addition to the properties imposed by belonging to the corresponding part-of-speech classes, some digits have unique syntactic properties. For example, interrogative-relative pronouns act as interrogative words to help form interrogative sentences and as subordinating conjunctions in compound sentences. Negative predicatives form impersonal sentences ( apple nowhere fell; not because of what get upset).

They have unique semantic and syntactic properties and therefore are not included in this table:

• reflexive pronoun yourself;
• pronoun most, which has two functions: amplifying ( the same Munchausen, the very thing!) and the formation of the superlative degree of adjectives ( the fastest, the best, the best);
• general numeral both and its denial neither one nor the other;
• colloquial interrogative-relative pronoun how much?("what is the price?");
• interrogative-relative predicate what is: What is it like to be a mother of many children?
• pronominal combinations himself, each other (friend to friend), one another and the like.

We can say that each of these pronouns forms its own semantic-syntactic category, which has no analogues among other parts of speech. They could be placed in a table, but then the other cells of the same row would remain empty.

Demonstrative pronouns indicate an object (this, that), a sign (such), a quantity (so much, both), a time (now, then), a place (here, there), a course of action (so, that), a goal (then) or reason (because), without directly naming what they point to. As a rule, this becomes clear from the context, including non-verbal ( Yesterday I caught this fish!)

Demonstrative pronouns are divided into two subclasses with the meanings "close to the speaker" (this, this, here, here) and "far from the speaker" (that, that, there, there).

Pronouns So and so many are used in both senses, i.e. essentially devoid of this opposition. Where they used to say and so and so or and so and so, now (2014) say and so and so.

Personal pronouns can be considered a specialized type of demonstrative, distinguished by the fact that they carry the grammatical meaning of a person - 1st, 2nd, 3rd or "the same" person (expressed by pronouns myself and mine). They are also related to demonstratives by the possibility of their use in combinations with relative ones: O you, which combined | With a deep feeling, the taste is only true ...(A.S. Pushkin)

Generalizing pronouns are singled out on the basis of the similarity of meaning. Many of them also have a common root sun-. They do not point to anything specific like demonstrative pronouns. Generalizations in Bulgarian. Usage example any in a generic function: Anything happens.(not to be confused with slang any in the meaning of "of course, by all means," stopudovo ""). Generalizations are contrasted in meaning with negative ones: Everybody left. - Nobody stayed. Nothing is eternal. - Everything passes. Always say yes. ≈ Never say no. Etc.

A special subset of generalizing are pronouns anyone, anyone, anyone, anyone, anything, whatever etc. With the rest of the generalizations ( everything, everything, always, everywhere...) they are related, for example, by the following rows of synonymous statements:

• Anyone can!
• Anyone can do it!
• Everyone can do it!
• It can be anyone!
• Everyone can do it!

• Every hunter wants to know...
• Every hunter wants to know...
• Every hunter wants to know...
• All hunters want to know...

Adjective the whole(more precisely, its forms all and all) on closer examination reveals two meanings, generalizing the pronominal and concrete "entirely, completely, from beginning to end":

word ambiguity the whole can give rise to two interpretations. For example. phrase "Dirty all trousers" can be understood as "dirty fully one pants" or "dirty (it is not known to what extent) all available pair of trousers. The ambiguity of meaning is also emphasized by the fact that when translated into English, for example, the word all conveyed in different words: All people are brothers. – Spent the wholesale vacation at grandma's. At the same time, these two meanings have much in common, compare: The whole village voted in favor. All the villagers voted for.

The words different, other, different, otherwise united by a common meaning, namely: they are opposed in meaning to indicative ones: other = not this, not that, not like that; otherwise = not so- and on this basis they are singled out in a special category of oppositional ones. The empty cells of this line of the table do not at all mean the impossibility of expressing the corresponding values. They can be expressed analytically: not that = something else; not here = elsewhere, somewhere else; not now = some other time etc.

Pronouns-adjectives are characterized by substantiation (transition into nouns), as well as ordinary adjectives ( ordinary, comma, animal, lungs). Examples: This one will go with me!(Here this close in value to is he, but with a touch of disdain). Kings can do anything!(substantiated the whole). My yesterday again on the horns came.(husband) Herself?(boss) The last two examples demonstrate another interesting feature of pronouns - the ability to take on a specific meaning, moving into the category of full-fledged words. So, my in the mouth of a woman can mean "my husband" or "my child", and myself- playfully-respectful naming of the chief. This also includes the slang word no"drunk drunk, dead tired, unconscious", the use of which as a nominal part of the predicate increased 8 times between 1970 and 2008.

a few extremely rare ( ...to pass recertification, it is enough to pay someone a little...) See also the discussion in pishu-pravilno .

somehow, anyhow have a very specific meaning (at the very least, barely, carelessly, badly), therefore they cannot be attributed to pronouns (see) and therefore they are crossed out in the table. More about the lexicalization of pronouns:

• Dynamic processes in the system of pronominal words of the modern Russian language. Sokolova Svetlana Vyacheslavovna Dissertation, Moscow State University, 2007.
• On one case of lexicalization in the system of Russian pronominal words / SV Sokolova // Proceedings of the Ural State University. - 2008. - No. 55. - P. 181-187.

Insofar as not used in an interrogative role, only in a relative in combination with insofar as. Samo insofar as occasionally appears in a demonstrative role apart from insofar as: "... Socialism is nothing more than a state-capitalist monopoly, turned to the benefit of the whole people and to that extent ceased to be a capitalist monopoly" (V.I. Lenin)

The word "some" does not exist. The corresponding meaning can be expressed by the combinations "There is no such X that ..." or "There is not one (such and such)" Similarly, there is no word "how", instead of it one can say, for example, "There is no way to do X." The word "several" is indefinite and is not used as a predicate. You can replace it, for example, with the phrase "There is not enough to ..."

Formation of a negative predicative from a pronoun whose From a morphological point of view, it does not cause difficulties: nobody's: I want to commend your child. - To me nobody's praise the child. But the use of this pronoun in Google has not yet been found - only misspelled nothing and nobody's.

Experiment

Assumption: pronouns have the same syntactic properties as the parts of speech they refer to. Let's check it experimentally. Let's take a declarative sentence and replace its various members with pronouns:

A fluffy cat purrs on the porch.

Who's purring on the porch?
She purrs on the porch.
Someone is purring on the porch.
Everyone is purring on the porch.
No one purrs on the porch.
Someone to purr on the porch.

Which cat purrs on the porch?
This cat purrs on the porch.
A cat is purring on the porch.
Every cat purrs on the porch.
No cat purrs on the porch.
*Some cat purr on the porch.

Fluffy cat purrs where?
A fluffy cat is purring somewhere.
A fluffy cat purrs there.
Fluffy cat purrs everywhere.
A fluffy cat does not purr anywhere.
A fluffy cat has nowhere to purr.

As you can see, personal and demonstrative pronouns freely replace any member of a sentence without violating its grammatical structure. General pronouns also fit easily into a sentence, with the exception of the pronoun all, which requires the plural ( everyone is purring). Interrogative pronouns make a sentence interrogative without changing its structure either. But with the negative, everything is more complicated. None, no one and nowhere also require negation with the predicate (does not purr), but no one and nowhere radically change the structure of the sentence, making it impersonal, which was the main reason for separating them into their category, along with a semantic difference from ordinary negative pronouns.

But what about the predicate? you say. - All members of the sentence were replaced by pronouns, but the predicate was left?

In Russian, pronouns are not traditionally distinguished among verbs. But, for example, Buryat, they are:

A feature of the Buryat-Mongolian pronouns is that they include three more verbs: iihe “to do” (similar to this), tiikhe “to do” (similar to that), yaakha (“how to be?”, “what to do?”)

So it would be quite possible to attribute verbs to pronouns make and do:

fluffy cat does something on the porch.

Three degrees of pronominality

This is just a hypothesis that needs to be developed and tested. So, the three degrees of "pronouns":

1. Full-meaning words that lose their lexical meaning and acquire the functions of pronouns: East - case thin. AT given case.
2. Pronouns proper in their pronominal role.
3. Pronouns that point to nothing, just a grammatical gag. In English: Shake it! Move it! as well as the well-known It rains. - It doesn't point to anything in particular.

Morphology of pronouns

Pronouns-adjectives are completely devoid of comparative and superlative forms. You can't say "other" or "any". Short forms are available for words such and which(in the latter they are used in an interrogative role, and full - in a relative one). Colloquial short forms are also found in any, such, such, such, such and kind of.

Personal pronouns

They vary in persons, numbers, cases and genders.

case	The only thing					plural
Nominative	I	you	is he	it	she is	we	you	they
Genitive	me	you	(n) him		(n) her, (n) her	us	you	(n) them
Dative	to me	you	(n) him		(her	us	to you	(n) im
Instrumental	me, me	you, you	(n) im		(n) her, (n) her	us	you	(n) them
Prepositional	to me	you	him		her	us	you	them

The accusative is independent of animacy and is the same as the genitive for all personal pronouns, including it.

Pronouns is he, she is, it and they have the shape of n- with all suggestions except thanks to, outside, despite, after, due to, contrary to, towards, according to, respectively, like. See also the discussion in the comments.

Form rod.p. her is colloquial: she has = she has.

reflexive pronoun myself

Unique word - does not have a nominative form, is used only in indirect cases of the singular. Declined like a pronoun you:

AND.	you
R.	you	myself
D.	you	yourself
AT.	you	myself
T.	you	yourself
P.	about you	About Me

By this analogy, the nominative case should be sy. ☺

The offer is an addition.

Possessive pronouns

They are qualitative and play the role of definitions in the sentence.

My, your, our, your and mine

Pronoun how many inclined as an adjective -th and has only plural forms; it does not change by birth.

Pronouns which, which, whose and how many, like adjectives, play the role of a definition, agreeing with the word being defined in gender, number and case.

The exception is how many. Like the numeral, it governs a definable noun, which in the nominative and accusative cases is placed in the genitive plural.

Where, where, when, why and why

Adverbial pronouns, like adverbs themselves, do not change.

Indefinite pronouns

Formed from relatively interrogative by adding prefixes something(colloquial koi-), shock attachment not- and postfixes -then, -or and someday:

	something	not-	-then	-or	someday
who	someone	someone	someone	anyone	anyone
what	something	something	something	anything	anything
which	some	some, some	some	any	some
whose	someone		someone's	someone else	somebody
how many		some	some	any	any
where	somewhere	*	somewhere	anywhere	somewhere
where	somewhere	*	somewhere	somewhere	somewhere
when		once *	once upon a time	ever	someday
as	somehow		somehow	somehow	somehow
why			for some reason	for some reason	for some reason
why	for some reason	*	for some reason	for some reason	for some reason

These pronouns are inclined in the likeness of primitives, taking into account the fact that the ending is located before the postfix: someone, someone, somebody...

When combining pronouns on something about something, someone who has, with someone (something in between...?). Other pronouns, including some and some, combined with the preposition in the usual way: under some circumstances, with some (some) master... About declination some cm. .

* Pronouns nowhere, nowhere, nowhere, nowhere are negative and therefore not included in the table - these places are asterisks.

Pronoun once has a double meaning (indefinite and negative):

• Tropical turtles once lived at the South Pole.
• There is no time for teachers to grow old.

Pronouns someone and something only the form of im.p. belongs to the category of indefinite pronouns. pronouns someone and forms to them. and wine. pronoun cases something. The remaining case forms of these pronouns have a different meaning and refer to negative pronouns: nothing, nothing... If it is necessary to change the cases in colloquial speech, these pronouns are used as indeclinable or inclined according to the substantive type. Compare:

• I saw something. This something had eyes.
• I saw something. It has something/something (*nothing) were eyes.

Indefinite pronouns are also adjoined by stable combinations of the form “(pronoun) whatever ... nor ...”:

• Wherever we go and whatever we do, our thoughts create the surrounding reality.

Among them, the most common phrases of the form "... whatever": for whatever reason; howbeit etc.

Indefinite pronouns anyhow who, anyhow which, anyhow where etc. are formed and declined in the same way as pronouns with the prefix something, only anyhow for some reason it is written separately.

Negative pronouns

Formed from interrogative (relative) pronouns using an unstressed prefix neither- (none, nothing, no, nobody's, not at all, nowhere, nowhere, never, no way, for no reason, useless) and shock not- (no one, nothing, nowhere, nowhere, once, no need).

When combining pronouns on neither- with a preposition, the preposition follows the prefix: with no one, no one, nothing.

Forms of indefinite and negative pronouns formed from the same interrogative pronoun when by adding a prefix not- are homonymous and differ in meaning. Compare: to me once. – I once was there.

The forms of the genitive and dative cases of the indefinite pronoun are also homonymous. some and negative pronoun no one:

• The information was passed on to a third party.
• I have no one to share my experience with.

In instrumental and prepositional they differ: some - no one, about someone - not about anyone. Pronoun some in oblique cases has two varying stems, some- and some[j]-.

AND.	some
R.	someone / someone	no one
D.	to someone / to someone	no one
V. odush.	=I/R	no one
V. inanimate
T.	some	no one
P.	about someone / about someone	not about anyone

Pronouns no one, nothing there are no nominative case forms (or rather, they belong to the category of indefinite ones).

Demonstrative pronouns

They serve to distinguish among others any specific object, feature, quantity, place, time, cause or mode of action. These include:

• Subject: This and then.
• Quality: this, that, such, such, sort of, what a, this, this.
• Quantitative: so many.
• adverbs: because, therefore, insofar as, here, there, there, then, So, syak.

Features of the declension of some pronouns:

• Pronouns the whole and myself decline according to the pronominal type, and the rest - according to the adjective.
• Pronoun root vowel the whole- runaway: all, everyone, everything etc.
• Pronoun any along with the full forms, it also has obsolete short forms: everyone, any.
• Pronoun myself in vin.p. unit zh.r. has two forms: herself and most. The form most considered literary. herself- colloquial. My grandmother says sometimes Samuyo and tuyo(im. units that). There is also an obsolete form itself(in the Dahl dictionary, the article "himself": " Myself(female most or most) cheated, even me»)

Questions for self-examination

• they?
  Answer: personal.
• What category does the pronoun belong to? her(nominative)?
  Answer: possessive.
• What category does the pronoun belong to? whose?
  Answer: interrogative-relative.
• "The one on top" What category does the pronoun belong to? what?
  Answer: relative.
• "I am busy"- what category does it belong to? once?
  Answer: negative.

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The Russian language has a huge number of speech possibilities, for example, allowing you to replace meaningful words with others without changing the meaning, but giving the narrative more dynamism and diversity. What are pronouns and what is their role in the language?

An independent role among the parts of speech is assigned. pronominal words refer to objects without specifying their names, characterize the quantity, circumstantial moments and signs of these active objects. The pronoun as a part of speech therefore has a generalized lexical concept.

In contact with

Classification and distinctive features

There are a lot of pronominal words, they differ in categories, functions and meanings. The table of pronouns will help you figure it out:

They refer to:	are changing
Personal pronouns
Participants in the conversation: on the one who speaks; that - for whom they say or those - about whom (what) they are talking.	They change the number: I, you, he, his - the only one: we, them, you used in the plural. They have a sign of gender only in the third person: he came, she liked it, she was invited, they talk about him.
I - me, she - hers, you - you, they - theirs. I read this book – I was interested in this book. She did her homework - Her asked to do homework.
Possessive
The relation or connection of an object with something or someone.	They have numerical forms: a single sign: yours, his, mine, mine; plural: ours, theirs, yours. Case forms: my, my, mine. Genus can be identified only in singular: her, him, her.
Example: I live in my apartment. You live in your apartment. They live in their own apartment. In the first sentence, we are talking about the apartment of the speaker, in the second - about the apartment of the one with whom they are talking, and in the third - those they are talking about.
Refundable
The event happens to the actor.	They do not change person, gender or number. In all cases, with the exception of the nominative, they tend to change the ending: themselves, themselves, themselves.
Your reports are excellent. My mirror is broken. My clothes look very fashionable.
Interrogative pronouns
Used to reinforce a question in speech	Case changes: what, to whom, what, whom, what, what, what. The genus is defined in a single meaning - how sweet, how fresh, how cheerful. Multiple expressions - which day, what news.
Remain unchanged pronouns-adverbs: Why did he come? Where to stay? When does vacation start? Where did the bus return from? An animated object is referred to by the pronoun "who?". An inanimate noun is asked the question “what?”. Who committed the crime? What to give for a birthday?
Relative pronouns
Similar in properties to interrogative ones, but without a question mark. They are used as unions to connect subordinate clauses in complex sentences with the main one.	are changing in the same order, which are interrogative pronouns.
Examples: I understand who solved this problem. He remembers when the meeting starts.
Negative pronouns
The denial of the existence of something: persons, quantities, objects, phenomena or signs.	They come from interrogative or relative digits, merging with the prefix "ni-". They change according to the same principle.
Used in p negative sentences: Nobody can solve this issue. I can never forgive you.
Indefinite pronouns
Uncertainty, uncertainty of signs, properties and quantity.	They are formed by adding the stressed prefix "not-", the prefix "something" and the postfixes "-something", "-or", "-something" to words of interrogative or relative content. Features of morphology and grammar - as in the interrogative category of pronouns.
There is no point in this action. Nobody was here. I won't tell anyone.
Demonstrative pronouns in Russian
One of similar items, special features, a certain number of them. Indicate without a name the occurring event, cause, purpose, method.	Adjective pronouns: decline in all cases - that picture, that paper, that bag; numbers - that room, those rooms; in a single meaning they have a generic sign - that basket, that backpack, that solution. How numerals can change in cases - So many beautiful fountains. Met so many friends. I owe you so much.
Pronouns do not change: From now on, there is no way for you to go there. These sounds come from there. Now the guests are coming. Come to that table. This option does not suit us. Those are the rules this year.
Determinants
They are a tool for clarifying a subject feature, object or subject.	Pronouns- tend to change their form in - every time, every little thing, every information. Numerical values ​​​​- the very first, most unexpected. In a single form, they have generic differences - any, any.
Pronouns-adverbs remain unchanged: The truth must always be told. Gardens are blooming everywhere. Birdsong is heard everywhere. Every person is obliged to protect nature. Parents are the closest people.

Transition to other parts of speech

Pronouns have a substitutive meaning in the text of sentences - they are used, replacing other parts of speech, or pass into them.

Syntactic features in sentences

Pronominal words can occupy in the syntactic analysis of the sentence any place other than the predicate. So, personal pronouns of the 3rd person play the role of the subject. The defining feature is which of the parts of speech in this case is replaced by such a pronoun in the text.

Important! In order to correctly determine the role of which member of the sentence the pronoun will play, it is necessary to correctly pose a question to it.

The subject or nominal part of the predicate are usually pronouns-nouns, sometimes pronoun adjectives.

We are going to the theatre. Who has read this play? Something will happen soon. On the exam, some passed the test successfully.

All categories of pronouns can be additions: Relatives came to me. You won't be able to tell everything. You have beautiful clothes on.

As definitions adjectives stand out(definitive pronouns, possessive pronouns, interrogative, indefinite, demonstrative). I'll take my friends for a walk. For some time now I have ceased to trust him. No difficulty will change our plans.

The circumstance as a member of the sentence contains questions: where from?, why?, how? There is no specific distinction as to whether the pronoun in this case is a circumstance or an addition. Both options considered correct:

Your teacher is giving you a headache. It was fun with him.

Grammar of correct spelling

There are certain rules for writing pronominal words with various prepositions, particles. Use with prepositions and other words can be merged, separate or with a hyphen. Not with pronouns - an important topic that requires careful study.

How negative pronouns are written and how to distinguish an indefinite pronoun:

Spelling with prefixes "not" and "neither":

• In the absence of a preposition between the prefixes and the root “not” and “neither”, it is written together: there is no one to ask, someone else, no one is visible, several years, something interesting.
• With a preposition before the root, it is written separately: nothing to complain about, does not apply to anything, not with any passerby, did not play with anyone, there is no one to try for.
• When using “not” in the meaning of negation, everything must be written separately: we didn’t do it, we didn’t come ourselves, we didn’t come here, it doesn’t concern everyone.

Learning pronouns

Important! It should be remembered: for nothing, for nothing, for nothing, for nothing.

Together, separately or through a hyphen

• In the case when in a phrase the pronoun is replaced without loss of meaning by another part of speech or is completely excluded from it, they are written separately with a preposition: behind that turn - around the turn - behind a sharp turn; along this route - along the route - along a difficult route.
• At merging a preposition and any sign pronouns-adverbs are formed that write together: then pour water, be therefore, therefore he did not answer, because it matters.
• With the prefix “something” or the postfixes “-or” and “-something”, it is correct to write with a hyphen: somehow leaves, someone brought, somewhere is located, somewhere located.

Pronouns in Russian

Types of pronouns, lesson

Conclusion

There are a lot of pronouns in Russian, and their types are quite diverse. No other language gives such a role to this part of speech. They differ in their functions in speech and roles in syntax and grammar. The ability to replace other members of speech without losing the meaning allows you to compose a competent and logically correct sentence and add variety to the text.

1. Pronoun- an independent part of speech that indicates objects, signs, quantity, but does not name them.

For pronouns, you can ask questions of nouns (who? what?), adjectives (which one? whose?), numerals (how much?), adverbs (how? when? where?).

The main features of pronouns

2. Ranks of pronouns in relation to other parts of speech:

1. Noun pronouns - me, you, we, you, he, who, what, someone, nobody, yourself and etc.:

• point to things;
• answer the questions of nouns ( who? what?);
• change in cases;
• are associated with other words in a sentence, like nouns;

2. Pronouns-adjectives - mine, yours, ours, yours, what, some, this, that and etc.:

• indicate signs of objects;
• answer the questions of adjectives ( which one? whose?);
• associated with nouns, like adjectives;
• change, like adjectives, by number, gender (in the singular) and cases.

  A pronoun that is adjacent to pronouns-adjectives (it changes by gender, number and case), but, as an ordinal number, indicates the order of objects when counting (cf .: - What time is it now? - Fifth);

3. Pronouns-numerals - how many, how many, several:

• indicate the number of items;
• answer the question (how much?);
• associated with nouns as cardinal numbers;
• usually change in cases;

4. Pronouns-adverbs - so, there, because, where, where and etc.:

• indicate signs of action;
• answer adverb questions as? where? when? where? why? why?);
• do not change, like adverbs;
• associated with verbs in the same way as adverbs.

Notes. Traditionally, pronouns-adverbs are excluded from the composition of pronouns. In this case, the composition of pronouns includes only those words that correspond to the nominal parts of speech (with nouns, adjectives, numerals). But since pronominal adverbs are there, then others, like other pronominal words, do not name, but only indicate (in this case, signs of actions), we consider them as a special group as part of pronouns.

3. Ranks of pronouns by meaning and grammatical features:

1. Personal pronouns: I, you, we, you, he (she, it, they) - indicate the persons who are involved in the speech:

• these are noun pronouns;
• a constant morphological feature for all personal pronouns is a person (I, we - 1st l.; you, you - 2nd l.; he (she, it, they) - 3rd l.);
• a constant morphological feature of personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd l. is a number (I, you are singular; we, you are plural);
• all personal pronouns change by case, and not only the ending changes, but the whole word ( I - me, you - you, he - his);
• 3rd person pronoun he changes by number and gender (singular) - he, she, it, they.

2. reflexive pronoun self - means that the action performed by someone is directed at the actor himself:

• it is a pronoun-noun;
• the reflexive pronoun has no gender, person, number and nominative form;
• the reflexive pronoun changes in cases ( yourself, yourself, yourself).

3. Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, ours, yours- indicate the sign of the object by its belonging:

• these are adjective pronouns;
• possessive pronouns change by number, gender (in the singular), cases ( my, my, my, my, my etc.).

When indicating belonging to a third person, frozen forms of the genitive case of personal pronouns are used - his, her, them.

4. Interrogative pronouns: who? what? which? whose? which? how many? where? when? where? where? why? etc. - are used in interrogative sentences:

• who? what? - pronouns-nouns; have no gender, person, number; change in cases ( who, who, what, what etc.);
• which? whose? which? what, what, what, what, what etc.);
• how many? - pronoun-numeral; changes in cases ( how many, how many, how many etc.);
• where? when? where? where? why?

5. Relative pronouns match with interrogative who, what, which, whose, which, how much, where, when, where, from where, why etc., but are used not as interrogative words, but as allied words in subordinate clauses:

I know who is to blame for our failure; I know how much effort he put into this task; I know where the money is hidden.

Morphological and syntactic characteristics of relative pronouns are the same as for interrogative pronouns.

6. Indefinite pronouns: someone, something, some, some, someone, some, several, some, somewhere, sometime etc. - indicate indefinite, unknown objects, signs, quantity.

Indefinite pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns using the prefixes non-, some- and postfixes something, something, something:

who → someone, someone, someone, someone, someone, someone; how much → several, how many, how many; where → somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, somewhere.

The morphological and syntactic characteristics of indefinite pronouns are the same as for interrogative pronouns, from which indefinite pronouns are formed.

7. Negative pronouns: no one, nothing, none, no one, not at all, nowhere, never, nowhere, no reason etc. - indicate the absence of objects, signs, quantities.

Negative pronouns are formed from interrogative pronouns with the help of prefixes not-, nor-:

who → nobody, how much → not at all, where → nowhere, when → never.

The morphological and syntactic characteristics of negative pronouns are the same as those of interrogative pronouns, from which negative pronouns are formed.

8. Demonstrative pronouns: that, this, this, this, such, so much, there, here, here, there, here, from there, from here, then, therefore, then etc. - are a means of indicating certain objects, signs, quantity (with a distinction between one and the other):

• that, this, this, that, such- pronouns are adjectives and change in numbers, genders (in the singular), cases ( that, that, that, those; such, such, such, such etc.);
• so much - pronoun-numeral; changes in cases ( so many, so many, so many etc.);
• there, here, here, there, here, from there, from here, then, therefore, then and others - pronominal adverbs; immutable words.

9. Definitive pronouns: himself, most, all, everyone, each, other, other, any, everywhere, everywhere, always etc. - serve as a means of clarifying the subject, the sign in question:

• himself, most, all, everyone, each, other, other, any- pronouns are adjectives and change in numbers, genders (in the singular), cases ( every, every, every, every, every etc.);
• everywhere, everywhere, always- pronominal adverbs; immutable words.

Note!

1) Pronouns that, himself, pronouns this, all in the singular, neuter gender (this, everything) and some others in certain contexts can act as pronouns-nouns, like substantiated adjectives ( That we are no longer dangerous; Myself will come; This is book ; Everything ended well).

2) Some pronouns have homonyms among the official parts of speech ( it's what, how, when): This is book(pronoun). - Moscow is the capital of Russia(indicative particle); I know what to say to him(pronoun). - I know that he is here(union).

3. Morphological analysis of pronouns:

Plan for parsing pronouns

I	Part of speech, general grammatical meaning and question.
II	Initial form. Morphological features:
	A	Permanent morphological features:
		1	category in relation to another part of speech (pronoun-noun, pronoun-adjective, pronoun-numeral, pronoun-adverb);
		2	category by value (personal, reflexive, possessive, interrogative, relative, indefinite, negative, indicative, attributive);
		3	person (for personal pronouns);
		4	number (for personal pronouns of the 1st person and 2nd person).
	B	Variable morphological features:
		1	case;
		2	number (if any);
		3	gender (if any).
III	Role in the proposal(which member of the sentence is the pronoun in this sentence).

pronoun parsing patterns

Imagine the joy of some botanist who unexpectedly finds himself on a desert island, where no human foot has set foot before and where he can enrich his collection with all sorts of outlandish representatives of the flora.(N.S. Valgina).

(Imagine) yourself

1. to whom?
2. N. f. - myself. Morphological features:
   
   2) returnable;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the form of the dative case.
3. The offer is an addendum.

some (botany)

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question what?
2. N. f. - some. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   2) indefinite;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the singular, masculine, genitive.

which

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the questions which? which? who?
2. N. f. - which. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-adjective;
   2) relative;
   
3. In a sentence, the subject.

where

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question where?
2. N. f. - where. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-adverb;
   2) relative;
   B) Immutable form.
3. In a sentence, an adverb of place.

(before) these (since)

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question what?
2. N. f. - this. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-adjective;
   2) index;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the plural, genitive case.
3. In a sentence - part of the adverbial tense.

draw (leg)

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question whose?
2. N. f. - nobody's. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-adjective;
   2) negative;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the singular, feminine, nominative case.
3. The proposal contains an agreed definition.

is he

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question who?
2. N. f. - is he. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-noun;
   2) personal;
   3) 3rd person;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the singular, masculine, nominative case.
3. In a sentence, the subject.

my (collection)

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question whose?
2. N. f. - mine. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-adjective;
   2) possessive;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the singular, feminine, accusative.
3. The proposal contains an agreed definition.

all sorts (representatives)

1. Pronoun, indicates an object, sign, quantity, without naming them; answers the question what?
2. N. f. - any. Morphological features:
   A) Permanent morphological features:
   1) pronoun-adjective;
   2) definitive;
   B) Non-permanent morphological features: used in the plural form, instrumental case.
3. The proposal contains an agreed definition.

Exercise for the topic “3.6.1. The concept of a place. Classes of pronouns. Morphological analysis of pronouns»

The book presents in a concise and accessible form the necessary reference material on all types of analysis in the Russian language lessons for the elementary school course, and presents many diagrams and samples of grammatical analysis.