Engineering ammunition: Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. Artillery Ammunition

Classification of engineering ammunition and minefields.

Purpose of engineering barriers:

1. Inflict losses on the enemy;

2. Delay the advance of the enemy;

3. Forge the maneuver of the enemy;

4. Ensure defeat by fire;

5. Cover the gaps between strong points to cover the command post and large warehouses.

Barriers are characterized by density - the number of barriers per 1 km.

The barriers are divided into:

1. Mine-explosive (characterized by the arrangement of different minefields, object mines and remote mining systems - aviation, artillery, missile);

2. Non-explosive(using wire ditches);

3. Electrified barriers;

4. Water barriers (undermining dams, bridges);

5. Combined

By appointment:

1. Anti-tank (minefields (MP), remote MP, groups of mines in the nodes of obstacles, anti-tank ditches, scarps and counterscarps, gouges, pieces of piles, hedgehogs, barricades);

2. Anti-personnel (MP, wire barriers, booby traps, MZP, electrified barriers);

3. Anti-vehicle (from individual mines and object mines, blocks);

4. River (sea, river mines, floating mines, mining of fords);

5. Anti-landing (at a depth of up to 5 m).

Minefields: guided and unguided

Mines: contact and non-contact

Mines: anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious, anti-vehicle, sabotage

Topic 2

Purpose, main performance characteristics, general arrangement, procedure for installing and neutralizing the TM-72 anti-tank mine with MVN-80.

TM-72 anti-tank anti-bottom mine. An explosion occurs when the projection of a tank (BMP, BMD, armored personnel carrier, car) hits a mine, its magnetic field acts on the reacting device of the fuse. The defeat of vehicles is inflicted by penetrating the bottom with a cumulative jet during the explosion of a mine charge at the moment when the tank or some other vehicle is above the mine.

Housing material………................................................ steel

Weight……………………………………………… 6 kg.

Weight of explosive charge (TG-40)…………………………. 2.5 kg.

Diameter…………………………………………. 25 cm.

Height…………………………………………..12.6 cm

Armor penetration………………………. 100 mm from a distance of 0.25-0.5 m

Fuse……………………………………………………….

Installation

TM-72 mines with MVN-80 fuse are installed only manually; to set the mines manually, you need to: install the mine in the hole, move the fuse transfer handle to the firing position and secure it with a pin, remove the pin and tear off the fuse cover with the key, while holding the cover with your hand, pull the thread from the fuse by 0.5 ... 1 m, disguise the mine by taking the cover and moving away from the mine, pull the thread out of the fuse completely and leave the installation site.

Withdrawal

Search and removal of mines installed with the MVN-80 fuse. Allowed only with the help of the control device PUV-80.

PROHIBITED: search for mines with probes; remove a mine that has visible mechanical damage to the fuse; remove the mine if the signal from the fuse is not heard by the control device or the proximity sensor of the fuse target is not turned off by a signal from the control device

To search for and remove mines, it is necessary: ​​to prepare the control device for operation; turn on the device and moving in the required direction, search for mines; having found a mine with a fuse by a characteristic signal in the head phones, give a signal to turn off the fuse; make sure that the fuse is turned off (the signal in the phones should disappear), remove the camouflage layer of soil, and holding the fuse from displacement with your hand, move the fuse transfer handle to the transport position and fix it with a pin.

2. Purpose, main performance characteristics, general arrangement, procedure for installation and disposal of the TM-83 anti-tank mine.

Anti-tank anti-aircraft mine. Designed to disable enemy tracked and wheeled vehicles. The defeat of enemy vehicles is inflicted by penetrating the side armor with an impact core formed from the lining of a cumulative funnel during a mine explosion. When the shock core penetrates into the tank, the crew members and equipment of the tank are affected by drops of molten armor, high pressure that occurs inside and high temperature of the core. This causes a fire inside the tank, detonation of ammunition is possible
The mine can only be placed on the ground or attached to local items manually. The cork box or its lid serves as the base for the mine. The range of destruction of the tank is up to 50 meters, so the mine is installed on the side of the probable route of the tank at a distance of 5-50 meters from the axis of the route. With the help of the sight, the mine is aimed at the place of destruction.
Mina has two target sensors - seismic and infrared. The seismic sensor ensures the operation of the mine in the target standby mode, which saves energy from power sources.

seismic sensor, which has its own power source (373 (R20) battery), is installed in the ground near the mine and is connected to the infrared sensor and PIM by a wire line, and the infrared sensor, which also has its own power source (373 (R20) battery), is mounted on the mine body above. The safety-actuator (PIM) is screwed to the MD-5M fuse, which in turn is screwed into a socket on the back of the mine.
The main task of the PIM is to receive an electrical impulse from the infrared sensor of the target, to ignite the electric igniter, the gases of which will send the drummer forward. The drummer, in turn, will prick the fuse of the MD-5M, from which the mine will explode.
On the top of the PIM there is a safety pin in the form of a safety pin holding the safety rod. This rod, in the event of an accidental issuance of an electrical impulse while the mine is in a safe position, will not allow the striker to chop the fuse. After the safety pin is removed, under the action of the spring, the rod begins to move upward, freeing up space for the striker to move. The movement of the rod is carried out slowly due to the hydraulic resistance of the rubber in the cavity of the rod. The time of movement of the rod is, depending on the temperature, from 1 to 30 minutes. After this time, nothing prevents the striker from moving if the electric igniter fires.

Mina can be installed in an unmanaged (autonomous) version and in a managed version.
The controllability of the mine lies in the fact that with the help of a 100-meter wire line and a control panel (the control panel of the MZU mine is used), it can be repeatedly transferred to a safe (safety) mode or to a target standby mode. In safety mode, the mine is retrievable and defuseable.
If the mine is installed in an unguided version, then it is considered non-removable and non-disposable due to the high sensitivity of the seismic sensor and the likelihood of the infrared sensor being triggered by the thermal radiation of the human body when a person approaches the mine (on any side closer than 10 meters). The destruction of such a mine is possible only by shooting it from a heavy machine gun.
Also, in an unguided version, a mine can be installed with an MVE-72 or MVE-NS fuse. In this case, seismic, infrared sensors and PIM are not used, but a breakaway target sensor of the MVE-72 or MVE-NS fuse is used. The firing mechanism of the fuse is screwed onto the MD-5M fuse instead of the PIM. In this version, the TM-83 mine is installed similarly to the TM-73 mine.

Mine clearance, installed in the controlled version, is made after it is transferred to a safe position with the help of the MZU control panel. Defusing includes disconnecting the PIM from the mine, disconnecting the wire line from it and removing the batteries from the SD and ID.
It is impossible to neutralize a mine installed in an unguided version and it must be destroyed by firing it from a heavy machine gun or a large-caliber sniper rifle from a distance of at least 30 meters.
TTX mines TM-83:
Mine type ............................................ anti-tank anti-aircraft on the principle of impact core
Frame................................................. ................... metal
Weight................................................. ...................... 28.1 kg.
The mass of the explosive charge (TG 40/60) .............................. 9.6 kg.
Dimensions ............................................... ............... 45.5x37.7x44 cm.
Range of destruction of the target .............................. from 5 to 50 meters
Armor penetration .............................................. 100mm.
Hole diameter .................................................................. 80mm.
Main fuse ....................... own non-contact two-channel fuse MD-5M
Fuze target sensors ................................. seismic and infrared
The term of the combat operation of the mine ................................................... not less than 30 days
Application restrictions due to weather conditions. Fog (heavy snowfall, heavy rain) with visibility less than 50 m.
Controllability................................................. ...... managed/unmanaged
Neutralization ............................................... only in controlled option
Retrievability ............................................... ...... only in controlled version
Installation Methods ................................................................ manual
Long cocking time .............................................. 1-30 min.
Type of long-range cocking mechanism .................... hydromechanical

They are subdivided into explosives, explosive charges (extended charge), and engineering mines.

Classification

• Explosives are intended for excitation (initiation) of an explosion of explosive charges (BB) and engineering mines. These include igniter caps, blasting caps, electric igniters, electric detonators, detonating and igniter cords, incendiary tubes, fuses, and mine fuzes.
• Demolition charges are structurally designed, determined by volume and mass, the amount of explosives produced by the industry. They are intended for explosive work. The shape is concentrated, elongated and cumulative. As a rule, explosive charges have shells, nests for explosives, devices and devices for carrying and fastening on objects undermined.
• Mine-clearing charges intended for the device of passages in minefields.
• engineering mines are explosive charges structurally combined with means for their detonation. They are intended for the installation of explosive barriers and are divided into anti-tank, anti-personnel, anti-amphibious and special. Depending on the purpose, mines can be high-explosive, fragmentation, cumulative. The main elements of engineering mines are an explosive charge (BB) and a mine fuse. The explosive charge is intended to destroy or destroy an object.
• mine fuse- a special device for initiating (initiating) an explosion of an explosive charge of a mine. A device that has all the elements of a fuse, except for a detonator cap (igniter), is called explosive device.

Mine fuses can be mechanical, electrical and electromechanical. They may have special elements to ensure the safety of transportation and use.

Engineering mines explode from the impact of an object on them. Depending on the nature of the impact leading to an explosion, mines can be contact (pressure, tension, break, unloading action) or non-contact (magnetic, seismic, acoustic, etc.)

Precautionary measures

When handling engineering ammunition, it is prohibited:

• Throw, hit, heat, burn them.
• Apply great effort when installing and removing fuses, fuses and blasting caps.
• Store and transport fully equipped engineering ammunition.
• Store engineering ammunition together with fuses, detonator caps without appropriate packaging.
• Open the cases of engineering ammunition and extract explosives from them.
• Defuse and remove engineering mines. Report all cases of finding ammunition to law enforcement agencies.

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Information about explosives

Explosives serve as a source of energy necessary for throwing (throwing) bullets, mines, grenades, for breaking them, as well as for performing various blasting operations.

Explosives are such chemical compounds and mixtures that, under the influence of external influences, are capable of very rapid chemical transformations, accompanied by the release of heat and the formation of a large amount of highly heated gases capable of performing the work of throwing or destruction.

The powder charge of a rifle cartridge weighing 3.25 g burns out in about 0.0012 s when fired. When the charge is burned, about 3 large calories of heat are released and about 3 liters of gases are formed, the temperature of which at the time of the shot is 2400-29000. The gases, being highly heated, exert high pressure (up to 2900 kg / cm 2) and eject a bullet from the bore at a speed of over 800 m / s.

The process of rapid chemical change of an explosive from a solid (liquid) state to a gaseous state, accompanied by the conversion of its potential energy into mechanical work, is called explosion. During an explosion, as a rule, a reaction occurs when oxygen combines with the combustible elements of the explosive (hydrogen, carbon, sulfur, etc.).

An explosion can be caused by mechanical action - impact, prick, friction, thermal (electrical) action - heating, a spark, a flame beam, the explosion energy of another explosive that is sensitive to thermal or mechanical effects (explosion of a detonator cap).

Depending on the chemical composition of the explosives and the conditions of the explosion (the force of external action, pressure and temperature, the amount and density of the substance, etc.), explosive transformations can occur in two main forms, which differ significantly in speed: combustion and explosion (detonation).

Combustion- the process of transformation of an explosive, proceeding at a speed of several meters per second and accompanied by a rapid increase in gas pressure; as a result of it, throwing or scattering of surrounding bodies occurs.

An example of the burning of an explosive is the burning of gunpowder when fired. The burning rate of gunpowder is directly proportional to pressure. In the open air, the burning rate of smokeless powder is about 1 mm / s, and in the bore when fired, due to an increase in pressure, the burning rate of gunpowder increases and reaches several meters per second.

Explosion- the process of transformation of an explosive, proceeding at a speed of several hundred (thousand) meters per second and accompanied by a sharp increase in gas pressure, which produces a strong destructive effect on nearby objects. The greater the rate of transformation of the explosive, the greater the force of its destruction. When an explosion proceeds at the maximum possible speed under given conditions, then such a case of an explosion is called detonation. Most explosives are capable of detonating under certain conditions.

An example of the detonation of an explosive is the detonation of a TNT charge and the rupture of a projectile. The detonation speed of TNT reaches 6990 m/s.

The detonation of some explosive can cause the explosion of another explosive in direct contact with it or at a certain distance from it.

This is the basis for the device and the use of detonator caps. The transfer of detonation over a distance is associated with the propagation in the environment surrounding the explosive charge of a sharp increase in the pressure of the shock wave. Therefore, the excitation of an explosion in this way is almost no different from the excitation of an explosion by means of a mechanical shock.

Division of explosives according to the nature of their action and practical application

According to the nature of the action and practical application, explosives are divided into initiating, crushing (blasting), propelling and pyrotechnic compositions.

Initiators explosives are called those that have great sensitivity, explode from a slight thermal or mechanical effect and, by their detonation, cause the explosion of other explosives.

The main representatives of initiating explosives are mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate and tetrazene.

Initiating explosives are used to equip igniter caps and blasting caps. Initiating explosives and products in which they are used are very sensitive to external influences of various kinds, so they require careful handling.

Crushing (blasting) explosives are called those that explode, as a rule, under the action of the detonation of initiating explosives and, during the explosion, crush the surrounding objects.

The main representatives of crushing explosives are: TNT (tol), melinite, tetryl, RDX, PETN, ammonites, etc.

Crushing explosives are used as explosive charges for mines, grenades, shells, and are also used in blasting.

Crushing agents also include pyroxylin and nitroglycerin, which are used as a starting material for manufacturing.

Throwable called such explosives that have an explosive transformation in the form of combustion with a relatively slow increase in pressure, which allows them to be used for throwing bullets, mines, grenades, shells.

The main representatives of propellant explosives are gunpowder (smoky and smokeless).

Smoke powder is a mechanical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal.

Smokeless powders are divided into pyroxylin and nitroglycerine powders.

Rice. 53. The shape of the grains of smokeless powder:

a - plates; b - tape; c - tube; g - cylinder with seven channels

Pyroxylin powder is made by dissolving a mixture (in certain proportions) of wet soluble and insoluble pyroxylin in an alcohol-ether solvent.

Nitroglycerin powder is made from a mixture (in certain proportions) of pyroxylin with nitroglycerin.

The following can be added to smokeless powders: a stabilizer - to protect the powder from chemical decomposition during long-term storage; phlegmatizer - to slow down the burning rate of the outer surface of the powder grains; graphite - to achieve flowability and eliminate grain sticking. Diphenylamine is most often used as a stabilizer, and camphor as a phlegmatizer.

Smoke powders are used to equip fuses for hand grenades, remote tubes, fuses, to make a igniter cord, etc.

Smokeless powders are used as combat (powder) charges of firearms: pyroxylin powders - mainly in the powder charges of small arms cartridges, nitroglycerin, as more powerful - in the combat charges of grenades, mines, shells.

Grains of smokeless powder can be in the form of a plate, tape, single-channel or multi-channel tube or cylinder (see Fig. 53).

The amount of gases formed per unit time during the combustion of gunpowder grains is proportional to their burning surface. In the process of burning gunpowder of the same composition, depending on its shape, the burning surface, and therefore the amount of gases formed per unit of time, can decrease, remain constant or increase.

Rice. 54. Burning grains of smokeless powder:

a - degressive form; b - with a constant burning surface, c - progressive form

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which decreases as they burn, are called gunpowders of a degressive form (see fig. 54). This is, for example, a record and a tape.

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which remains constant during combustion, are called gunpowder with constant burning surface, for example, tube with one channel, cylinder with one channel. Grains of such gunpowder burn simultaneously both inside and from the outer surface. The decrease in the outer burning surface is compensated by the increase in the inner surface, so that the total surface remains constant for the entire burning time, if the burning of the tube from the ends is not taken into account.

Gunpowder, the surface of the grains of which increases as they burn, are called powders of progressive form, for example, a tube with several channels, a cylinder with several channels. When the grain of such gunpowder burns, the surface of the channels increases; this creates a general increase in the burning surface of the grain until it breaks up into parts, after which combustion occurs according to the type of combustion of gunpowder of a degressive form.

Progressive combustion of gunpowder can be achieved by introducing a phlegmatizer into the outer layers of a single-channel powder grain.

When burning gunpowder, three phases are distinguished: ignition, ignition, combustion.

ignition- this is the excitation of the combustion process in any part of the powder charge by quickly heating this part to the ignition temperature, which is 270-3200 for smoke powders, and about 2000 for smokeless powders.

Ignition is the propagation of the flame over the surface of the charge.

Combustion- this is the penetration of the flame into the depth of each grain of gunpowder.

The change in the amount of gases formed during the combustion of gunpowder per unit time affects the nature of the change in gas pressure and the speed of the bullet along the bore. Therefore, for each type of cartridges and weapons, a powder charge of a certain composition, shape and mass is selected.

Pyrotechnic compositions are mixtures of combustible substances (magnesium, phosphorus, aluminum, etc.) oxidizers(chlorates, nitrates, etc.) and cementers(natural and artificial resins, etc.). In addition, they contain special impurities: substances that color the flame; substances that reduce the sensitivity of the composition, etc.

The predominant form of transformation of pyrotechnic compositions under normal conditions of their use is combustion. Burning, they give the corresponding pyrotechnic (fire) effect (lighting, incendiary, etc.).

Pyrotechnic compositions are used to equip lighting and signal cartridges, tracer and incendiary compositions of bullets, grenades, shells, etc.

Ammunition, their classification

Ammunition(munitions) - an integral part of weapons, directly intended for the destruction of manpower and equipment, the destruction of structures (fortifications) and the performance of special tasks (lighting, smoke, the transfer of propaganda literature, etc.). Ammunition includes: artillery rounds, warheads of rockets and torpedoes, grenades, aerial bombs, charges, engineering and naval mines, land mines, smoke bombs.

Ammunition is classified by affiliation: artillery, aviation, naval, rifle, engineering; by the nature of the explosive and damaging substance: with conventional explosives and nuclear.

The armies of a number of capitalist countries also have chemical (fragmentation-chemical) and biological (bacteriological) munitions.

By purpose, ammunition is divided into main (for destruction and destruction), special (for lighting, smoke, radio interference, etc.) and auxiliary (for training crew crews, special tests, etc.).

Artillery ammunition include shots with shells for various purposes: fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive, armor-piercing, cumulative, concrete wallpaper, incendiary, with ready-made submunitions, smoke, chemical, tracer, lighting, propaganda, sighting and target designation, practical, training and training.

For firing at the first artillery pieces, spherical shells (nuclei) and incendiary shells in the form of combustible mixture bags were used. In the fifteenth century iron, lead, then cast iron cannonballs appeared, which made it possible, while maintaining the energy of their impact, to reduce the caliber, increase the mobility of the guns and at the same time increase the firing range. From the sixteenth century buckshot with cast-iron or lead bullets began to be used, inflicting heavy losses on infantry and cavalry. In the second half of the XVI century. explosive projectiles were invented: thick-walled cast-iron balls with an internal cavity for breaking the charge. Subsequently, in Russian artillery they were called grenades (with a mass of up to l-th pood inclusive) and bombs (with a mass of more than l-th pood). In the eighteenth century explosive shells began to be divided into fragmentation, giving a large number of fragments to destroy living targets, and high-explosive - to destroy structures. The so-called grenade buckshot appeared, each element of which was a small explosive grenade. The so-called brandkugels were used as incendiary projectiles, consisting of the body of an ordinary explosive projectile filled with an incendiary composition. Incendiary elements were also invested in explosive projectiles for combined target destruction.

Found the use of lighting and smoke shells. At the beginning of the XIX century. Englishman Shrapnel developed the first fragmentation projectile with ready-made fragments, which in all its modifications received the name of the inventor. By the middle of the XIX century. smoothbore artillery reached its highest development. However, the range of its firing and the effectiveness of the ball projectiles used were very insignificant. Therefore, the improvement of artillery went along the line of creating rifled guns and oblong projectiles, which began to be widely used from the 60s. 19th century This made it possible to significantly increase the range and improve the accuracy of fire, as well as increase the efficiency of shells. At that time, grenades, shrapnel, buckshot, incendiary shells were used in field artillery, and armor-piercing shells appeared in naval and coastal artillery to destroy armored ships. Until the 80s. 19th century Smoke powder served as a throwing and explosive projectile. In the mid 80s. smokeless powder was invented, the widespread use of which since the 90s. 19th century led to an increase in the range of artillery by almost two times. At the same time, the equipment of shells with blasting explosives began with pyroxylin, melinite, and from the beginning of the 20th century. - TNT, etc.

By the beginning of the First World War, the artillery of all armies consisted mainly of high-explosive shells and shrapnel. Fragmentation grenades were also used in German artillery to fire at open live targets. To combat aircraft, anti-aircraft shrapnel and remote grenades were used. The appearance of tanks led to the development of anti-tank artillery with armor-piercing shells. Chemical and special projectiles (smoke, lighting, tracer, etc.) were also used. Increased consumption of artillery ammunition. If Germany is at war with France in 1870-71. spent 650 thousand shots, Russia in the war with Japan 1904-05. - 900 thousand, then in 1914-18. shell consumption was: Germany - about 275 million, Russia - up to 50 million, Austria-Hungary - up to 70 million, France about 200 million, England - about 170 million. The total consumption of artillery ammunition during the First World War exceeded 1 billion

In the Soviet Army in the 30s. the modernization of artillery was successfully carried out, and during the years of the first five-year plans, new models of guns and shells for them were developed, and rocket artillery was created. For the first time, 82-mm caliber rockets were successfully used from aircraft in 1939 in battles on the river. Khalkhin Gol. At the same time, lZ2-mm M-13 rockets were developed (for the legendary Katyushas and aircraft weapons), and a little later, 300-mm M-30 rockets. Great development before the war and during it received mortars - smooth-bore guns that fire feathered projectiles (mines). New types of armor-piercing shells were created: sub-caliber (with a solid core, the diameter of which is less than the caliber of the barrel) and cumulative (providing a directional effect of the explosion). The Great Patriotic War consumed a huge amount of ammunition, and the Soviet industry coped with this task.

In total, during the war, she produced over 775 million artillery shells and mines. After World War II, anti-tank guided missiles (missiles) appeared in service with the armies of a number of states. They fire from launchers from armored personnel carriers, vehicles, helicopters, as well as from portable launchers. The control of these projectiles in flight is carried out by wire, by radio, in an infrared beam or a laser beam. Active-rocket projectiles, projectiles for recoilless rifles are being improved, specialized ammunition of increased efficiency and ammunition for cluster munitions are being created. To defeat manpower and equipment, ammunition is created with fragments of a given shape and mass and with ready-made lethal elements (balls, rods, cubes, arrows). Fragments are obtained by applying cuts on the outer or inner surface of the body (when it breaks, it is crushed into cuts) or by creating a special surface of an explosive projectile with elementary cumulative grooves (when it breaks, the body is crushed by cumulative jets) and other methods. Improved cumulative shells. Cluster parts of rockets, rockets and artillery shells with a large number of cumulative feathered combat elements are being developed, scattered at a certain height to destroy tanks from above. Work is underway to create rocket and artillery shells that provide remote mining of the terrain with anti-tank and anti-personnel mines. High-explosive-armor-piercing projectiles with a flattening warhead loaded with plastic explosives are widely used. When meeting with a target, the head of such a projectile is crushed and comes into contact with the armor over a large area. The explosive charge is undermined by a bottom fuse, which ensures a certain direction of the explosion. On the opposite side of the armor, large fragments break off, hitting the crew and internal equipment of the tank. In order to improve the accuracy of shooting, work is underway to create the simplest flight control systems and homing heads for projectiles. From the 50s. in the United States, nuclear weapons are being created for artillery systems.

Aviation ammunition was first used in 1911-12. in the war between Italy and Turkey and in a relatively short time received significant development. They include aviation bombs, one-time bomb clusters, bomb bundles, incendiary tanks, cartridges for aircraft machine guns and cannons, warheads for guided and unguided aircraft missiles, warheads for aircraft missiles, warheads for aircraft torpedoes, aircraft mines, etc.

Disposable bomb cassettes - thin-walled air bombs equipped with aircraft mines (anti-tank, anti-personnel, etc.) or small bombs (anti-tank, fragmentation, incendiary, etc.) weighing up to 10 kg. In one cassette there can be up to 100 or more mines (bombs), which are scattered in the air by special powder or explosive charges, activated by remote fuses at a certain height above the target. Bomb bundles - devices in which several aircraft bombs are connected by special devices into one suspension. Depending on the design of the bundle, the separation of bombs occurs either at the moment of dropping from an aircraft, or in the air after dropping a remote device. The cartridges of aviation machine guns and cannons differ from the usual ones due to the specifics of aviation weapons (high rate of fire, small calibers, dimensions, etc.). The most common calibers of aviation bullets are 7.62 and 12.7 mm, shells - 20,23,30 and 37 mm. Shells with an explosive shell (high-explosive, fragmentation, etc.) have fuses that fire with a slight delay after hitting an obstacle. The fuses can have self-liquidators, which, after a certain time after the shot, detonate shells in the air that did not hit the target, ensuring the safety of ground troops during air combat over their own territory. Warheads of aviation missiles have conventional or nuclear charges. They can be delivered to targets by air-to-air missiles at a range of up to several tens of kilometers, by air-to-ground missiles at hundreds of kilometers. Unguided rockets have conventional (rarely nuclear) warheads, a rocket engine (powder, liquid) and shock or proximity fuses. Their range reaches 10 km or more. Aircraft mines (anti-tank, anti-personnel, sea, etc.) are designed to lay minefields on land and sea from the air.

Marine munitions include naval and coastal artillery rounds, mines, depth charges, missile and torpedo warheads used by the navy to destroy naval targets. Ship and coastal artillery ammunition includes artillery rounds of various calibers and capacities. They use fragmentation tracer, high-explosive fragmentation, high-explosive and armor-piercing shells. Mines, first used at the end of the 18th century, remain an effective positional means of combating surface ships and submarines. Anchor galvanic impact mines of relatively low power were replaced by anchor, bottom, floating mines of high power, triggered by various physical fields of the ship. The torpedo, as an underwater projectile, entered service with ships in the second half of the 19th century and retains its importance as an effective means of destroying surface ships and submarines.

The depth charge, which appeared during the First World War, is an effective means of destroying submarines at considerable distances and various depths. The basis of the weapons of the modern Navy (Navy) is missile weapons with warheads in nuclear and conventional warheads. It can hit objects at ranges of several thousand kilometers.

Artillery and naval munitions include reactive munitions, which include unguided projectiles of land and sea multiple launch rocket systems, grenades (melee weapons).

Rocket munitions are delivered to the target due to the thrust generated during the operation of the rocket engine. They leave the guide launchers (leave the barrel of grenade launchers) at relatively low speeds, and acquire full speed in flight at the end of the active part of the trajectory.

An intermediate position between artillery and rocket projectiles is occupied by the so-called active rocket projectiles (mines), which combine the properties of conventional (active) and rocket projectiles. They are fired from artillery guns with an initial speed close to the speed of conventional projectiles. Due to the reactive charge that burns up during the flight of the projectile in the air, a certain increase in its speed and firing range is obtained. Rocket-active projectiles have the disadvantages of rocket projectiles, as well as reduced target efficiency.

Shooting ammunition is intended for direct destruction of enemy manpower and military equipment. They are unitary cartridges consisting of a bullet, a powder charge and a primer, united by a sleeve.

They are subdivided: according to the nature of the action of the bullet - with ordinary and special bullets (single and combined action); depending on the type of weapon in which they are used, on a pistol (revolver), machine gun, rifle and large-caliber.

Engineering ammunition - means of engineering weapons containing explosives and pyrotechnic compositions; mines, charges (demining, demining) and explosives.

Nuclear ammunition is designed to destroy critical targets. They are in service with the missile forces, aviation, navy, in the US Army, in addition, artillery and engineering units. These include the head (combat) parts of missiles, aerial bombs, artillery shells, torpedoes, depth charges and engineering mines equipped with nuclear charges.

Chemical Ammunition (foreign) is equipped with poisonous substances (S) of various persistence and toxicity and is intended for the destruction of enemy manpower, contamination of weapons, military equipment, food, water and terrain. These include chemical artillery and rocket projectiles, mines, aerial bombs, elements of missile warheads and aircraft clusters, land mines, etc.

Biological Ammunition (foreign) is equipped with biological (bacterial) agents and is intended to destroy people, animals and plants.

Depending on the method of transferring a biological formulation to a combat state, there are: explosive ammunition; with mechanical opening; devices that convert a biological formulation into an aerosol state under the influence of an air flow or pressure of inert gases.

Special ammunition is used to smoke and illuminate the area, deliver propaganda literature, facilitate zeroing, target designation, etc.

These include: smoke, sighting and target designation, lighting, tracer, propaganda shells (mines, bombs), lighting and signal cartridges, etc.

The fundamental difference between special ammunition is that their internal cavity is filled not with an explosive charge, but with smoke, lighting, tracer compounds, leaflets. They also have fuses (tubes) and expelling or small bursting charges to open the case in the air or when hitting an obstacle.

Signal and lighting cartridges are shots that eject shells with a pyrotechnic composition (stars), when burned, colored lights (smoke) are formed as signals, or white (yellow) fire to illuminate the area.

Special ammunition is widely used to support combat operations.

Weapon caliber the diameter of the bore of a firearm (for rifled weapons in the USSR and a number of countries it is determined by the distance between opposite fields of rifling; in the USA, Great Britain and other countries by the distance between rifling), as well as the diameter of the projectile (mines, bullets) according to its largest cross section.

The caliber of a weapon is usually expressed in linear units: inches (25.4 mm), lines (2.54 mm), mm. In the XVI-XIX centuries. the caliber of the weapon was determined by the mass of the cannonball (for example, a 12-pound cannon).

Gun caliber is sometimes specified in hundredths (US) or thousandths (UK) of an inch. For example, .22 (5.6 mm), .380 (9 mm).

Often the caliber of a weapon is used to express so-called relative values, such as barrel length. The caliber of hunting rifles is indicated by the number of ball bullets cast from one English pound (453.6 g) of lead;

The caliber of an aviation bomb is its mass in kg.

Engineering ammunition - means of engineering weapons containing explosives and pyrotechnic compositions. They were divided into explosives, explosive charges and engineering mines.

Explosive(BB) - an individual chemical substance or a mixture of several substances that can explode spontaneously or as a result of external influences with the release of heat and the formation of highly heated gases. Depending on the chemical composition and external conditions, explosives can be converted into reaction products in the modes of slow (deflagration) combustion, rapid (explosive) combustion, or detonation. Traditionally, explosives also include compounds and mixtures that do not detonate, but burn at a certain speed (propellant gunpowder, pyrotechnic compositions). Pyrotechnic the substance is intended to produce the effect of heat, fire, sound, or smoke, or a combination thereof, through self-sustaining exothermic chemical reactions without detonation.

The characteristics of explosives include: explosive transformation rate (detonation rate or burning rate); detonation pressure; heat (specific heat) of the explosion; composition and volume of gaseous products of explosive transformation; maximum temperature of explosion products (explosion temperature); sensitivity to external influences; critical detonation diameter; critical detonation density.

Explosives are classified according to a number of criteria.

According to the composition, they are distinguished: individual chemical compounds and explosive mixtures-composites. The composition of explosives also includes various regulatory additives to change physical and chemical processes.

By physical state: gaseous; liquid; gel-like; suspension; emulsion and solid. In military affairs, mainly solid explosives were used: monolithic (thol), powdered (RDX), granular (ammonium nitrate explosives), plastic, elastic. Plastic explosives were a relatively new type and were used to a limited extent, but in England, Germany and the USA. Three types of plastic explosives were produced in Germany under the Hexoplast brand. For example, "hexoplast-75" is known, containing 75% RDX, 20% liquid mixture of dinitrotoluenes, 3.7% TNT and 1.3% nitrocellulose. In England, a plastic explosive was produced under the designation "PE-2", consisting of 87.7% RDX, 6.2% mineral oil, 4.1% paraffin oil, 0.5% lecithin and 1.5% carbon black. The soot was a modifier that prevented the oil from spreading at elevated temperatures typical of the tropics. "PE-2" was widely used by special units of Great Britain against Germany. In the USA, plastic explosives were produced on the basis of the British one under the designation "C-1" and "C-2". It contained 77% RDX and 23% plasticizer - a eutectic mixture of 12% dinitrotoluene, 5% TNT, 2.7% mononitrotoluene, 0.3% nitrocellulose and 1% residual solvent - dimethylformamide.

According to the form of the explosion, they are distinguished: initiating (primary) and blasting (secondary). Initiating explosives were intended to initiate explosive transformations in charges of other explosives. They were distinguished by increased sensitivity and easily exploded from simple initial impulses (impact, friction, prick with a sting, electric spark). They were based on: mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead trinitroresorcinate, tetrazene, diazodinitrophenol and other substances with a high detonation velocity (over 5000 m/s). In military affairs, they were used to equip igniter caps, primer bushings, ignition tubes, various electric igniters, artillery and explosive blasting caps, electric detonators, etc. They were also used in various pyroautomatic devices: pyrochargers, squib cartridges, pyro locks, pyro pushers, pyromembrane, pyrostarters , catapults, explosive bolts and nuts, pyro-cutters, self-liquidators. Brisant substances had a high speed of propagation of the blast wave in the substance. They are less sensitive to external influences, and excitation of explosive transformations in them was carried out with the help of initiating explosives. Various nitro compounds (TNT, nitromethane, nitronaphthalenes), N-nitramines (tetryl, hexogen, octogen), alcohol nitrates (nitroglycerin, nitroglycol), cellulose nitrates, etc. were usually used as blasting explosives. Often these compounds are used as mixtures between themselves and with other substances. Many of these compounds also have explosive properties and under certain conditions can detonate.

According to the method of preparation of charges, explosives were divided into: pressed, cast (explosive alloys) and cartridgeed.

During the Second World War, more than 10 million tons of explosives of all kinds were produced in the warring countries.

Explosives- special mechanisms and devices for excitation (initiation) of an explosion of explosive charges and engineering mines. These included igniter caps, blasting caps, electric igniters, electric detonators, detonating and igniter cords, incendiary tubes, fuses and mine fuses. According to the principle of action, mechanical, electrical, radio engineering and chemical means of blasting were distinguished. They could be instant or delayed action.

Depending on the source of transmission of the initial impulse to the explosive charge, the means of blasting were divided into four groups: means of fire blasting (detonator caps, fire cords, incendiary cartridges and means of igniting fire cords); means of electrical blasting (electric detonators, connecting wires, current sources and instrumentation); means of electric fire blasting: (blasting caps, fire cords and electric igniters); means of blasting with the help of detonating cords (detonating cord and means of fire, electric or electric fire blasting).

Under primer-igniter understood a primer, similar to the primer of a small arms cartridge, sufficient in power to initiate the detonation of an explosive directly or by means of a fuse or a fuse.

blasting cap- a device for initiating the detonation of explosives from a igniter cord. It was a metal (steel, copper, aluminum) or paper sleeve, equipped with initiating explosives. The bottom of the sleeve could be flat or concave (with a cumulative funnel). The sleeve was filled with explosive about 2/3 of its length, the unfilled part served to introduce a igniter cord.

Electric igniter- a device representing an incandescent bridge with a drop of combustible composition applied to it. When a current is passed through it, the droplet instantly burns out and causes the detonation of the primary initiating explosive or ignition of the core of the igniter cord. As a rule, the electric igniter was part of the electric detonator. Electric igniters were more often used in blasting. Their advantage consisted in producing an explosion from any distance, ensuring the simultaneous detonation of charges, as well as at intervals in series, etc. The disadvantages of this blasting method were the complexity of preparing electrical networks, splicing wires, the danger of liquidating failed charges and explosion from stray currents, and the high cost of blasting tools.

Electric detonator- a device for creating an initial detonation pulse and initiating an explosive chemical reaction in the bulk of the explosive charge. The electric detonator was detonated electrically. Electric detonators were divided into "spark" and "incandescent". In spark electric detonators, the "activation" of the initiating explosive occurred under the influence of an electric arc current flowing between special electrodes. In this case, the “supplying” voltage reached values ​​of the order of several thousand volts. In "incandescent" electric detonators, "activation" occurred under the influence of an electric current flowing through the incandescent bridge. According to the response time, electric detonators were divided into "instantaneous", "short-delayed" and "slowed down". As a rule, the electric detonator consisted of a detonator cap and an electric igniter. It was widely used to explode electric detonators. explosive machine (subversive)- a portable source of electric current. The principle of its operation is based on the accumulation of electrical energy from a source of direct or alternating current and its rapid return to the explosive network at the time of the explosion. There were such types of explosive machines: magnetoelectric, dynamoelectric and capacitor. The latter are the most widely used.

detonating cord- a device for transmitting an initiating pulse to a distance to initiate detonation in explosive charges. The initiating impulse is usually excited by a blasting cap and transmitted by a detonating cord to one, more often to several charges, which must work simultaneously. The cord was also used to transmit momentum from one charge to another. It was an elastic waterproofed tube, polymer or consisting of several filament or fiberglass braids with an explosive core. The rate of detonation of numerous types and brands of detonating cord is different. The cord did not detonate from impact or open fire.

Fuse- a means for transmitting a fire impulse to a detonator cap or powder charge. There were several types of cord: wick, stop, fickford cord. The wick was a cotton rope impregnated with a solution of acetate or lead nitrate. Its burning rate is only 1 cm in 2-3 minutes. Stopin powder - a bunch of cotton threads soaked in potassium nitrate and smeared on the outside with a creamy mixture of powder pulp with glue. Burning speed ~ 4 cm/sec. Encased in a paper tube (stop drive), it served to quickly transfer fire, since its burning speed was more than 1 m / s.

All these types of cords were vulnerable to moisture, in addition, they gave a weak flame force. In the fickford cord, the stop, covered with powder pulp, was enclosed in a double textile braid, the top layer, which served to protect against dampness, was impregnated with bitumen. Stopin ensured the stability of the burning of the cord, the powder pulp provided sufficient flame strength, the double braid the flexibility and integrity of the core, bitumen, in addition to protecting against dampness, also allowed the powder gases to break out during combustion, and oxygen to enter the combustion zone. However, the fickford cord also had a number of disadvantages: it was extinguished in water, the burning rate was unstable, bitumen cracked and lost its qualities at low temperatures.

In later cords, the stop was replaced by a guide thread twisted from three cotton threads, each of which had a different impregnation. This ensured accurate control of the burning rate of the cord. The pyrotechnic composition with which the cord was filled did not need external oxygen and burned without an open flame. The outer diameter of the cord is 4-6 mm. The burning rate is about 1 cm/s. The transfer of combustion between the contacting segments of the cords was excluded.

incendiary tube- a device consisting of a detonator cap fastened in a sleeve with a piece of igniter cord for fire or electric fire initiation of a single explosive charge.

fuse- a mechanical-chemical device for igniting a charge during mine and blasting operations. The fuses are instant or delayed action.

Fuse- a device designed to detonate the main charge of a mine. According to the principle of operation, fuses were divided into contact, remote, non-contact, command, as well as combined action. Contact explosive devices were designed to provide contact action, that is, triggering due to the contact of the ammunition with a target or obstacle. According to the response time, contact fuses were divided into three types: instant action (0.05-0.1 ms); inertial action (1-5 ms); delayed action (from microseconds to several days); multi-installation (they may have not one, but several settings for the response time). Proximity fuses were used to provide non-contact action, that is, the fuse was triggered due to interaction with a target or obstacle without contact with the ammunition. These included magnetic, radio fuses, sentries, electromechanical.

Demolition charges were structurally designed (checkers, briquettes, etc.), defined by volume and mass, the amount of explosives produced by industry. They were intended for blasting during the fortification of positions and areas in conditions of frozen soils and rocks, the construction of barriers and making passages in them, as well as the destruction and destruction of objects and structures. The shape is concentrated, elongated and cumulative. As a rule, explosive charges have shells, nests for explosives, devices and devices for carrying and fastening on objects undermined. For the explosion of charges, as a rule, fire or electric methods were used. Mine clearing charges were intended for making passages in minefields.

engineering mines were explosive charges, structurally combined with the means for their detonation. They were intended for the installation of explosive barriers in order to destroy enemy manpower and equipment, destroy roads and various structures.

Mines are classified according to a number of criteria.

According to their purpose, mines were divided into three main groups: anti-tank, anti-personnel and special. In turn, special mines included: anti-vehicle (railway, road, airfield), anti-airborne, object, signal, traps, special. It should be noted that military personnel of all branches of the armed forces were required to be able to use anti-tank and anti-personnel mines, and only sappers worked with all other mines.

According to the method of causing harm, the mines were divided into: high-explosive (inflict defeat by the force of the explosion); fragmentation (inflict damage with fragments of their body or ready-made lethal elements (balls, rollers, arrows); cumulative (inflict defeat with a cumulative jet or impact core).

According to the degree of controllability, guided and unguided mines were distinguished. The essence of controllability was to switch the operator from the control panel of the target sensor to a combat or safe position. Management could be carried out by command radio or wire line. Guided mines allowed their troops to pass through themselves or to work selectively on command.

According to the type of target sensor, mines are: push action (triggered when the sensor is pressed by a machine or a person), tension action (mine triggered when the wire sensor is pulled); breakaway action (triggered when the integrity of a thin low-strength wire is violated);
magnetic (triggered by the influence of the magnetic field of the machine on the sensor), inclined action (triggered when the antenna (rod) deviates from the vertical position by the machine body) and seismic action (triggered by shaking, ground vibration). Various combinations of target sensors are possible, and it is not necessary that the operation of the target sensor cause the mine to explode. The operation of one target sensor may have the task of activating the sensor of the second stage. Typically, the stepwise use of sensors is aimed at saving the resource of the main target sensor or power supply. There were target sensors with multiplicity elements. Such a sensor initiates a mine only on the second or subsequent impact of the target on the mine.

A mine may have not one, but two or three target sensors, each of which can trigger the mine independently of the others.

According to the time of bringing into the combat position, the mines are divided into two main groups: those brought into the combat position instantly after the removal of the safety blocking devices; brought into combat position after the removal of safety blocking devices after a certain period of time (from 2 minutes to 72 hours).

By recoverability and neutralization, mines are divided into: recoverable decontaminated (a mine can be removed from a combat platoon, and then removed); retrievable non-defeatable (a mine can be removed and then blown up without causing damage or in a safe place, it is impossible to defuse); non-recoverable non-disposable (if you try to remove it, an explosion will occur; such a mine is blown up on the spot, or, one by one, the elements of non-removability are neutralized).

Mines may or may not have a self-destruct system. Self-destruction provides for, after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal), the production of a mine explosion or the transfer of the fuse to a safe position.

The self-neutralization system provides for the transfer of the fuse to a safe position after a specified period of time or upon the occurrence of certain conditions (certain temperature, humidity, radio signal, wired signal).

According to the method of installation, mines are distinguished: manually installed by soldiers, sappers, by means of mechanization (tracked and trailed mine spreaders) or remote mining (rocket, aviation, artillery systems). As a rule, most of the mines laid by means of mechanization can be placed manually and vice versa. Remote mines are usually used only by this method of delivery and installation.

Mines are serial and home-made, the latter can be made from shells, bombs and similar ammunition, from explosive charges and various submunitions. They could have a sector of directed defeat and circular. Mines of directional destruction were placed on the paths of movement of the enemy, they covered their positions, approaches to objects. They were considered very convenient for organizing booby traps.

Below we consider the characteristics, design and use of some types of mines in more detail.

anti-tank mine was intended to destroy or disable enemy tanks and other armored vehicles. Distinguished anti-track (destroy the tracks of the caterpillar, the wheel and thereby deprive the tank of mobility), anti-bottom (pierce the bottom of the tank and cause a fire in it, detonation of ammunition, failure of the transmission or engine, death or injury of crew members), anti-aircraft (pierce the side of the tank and cause a fire in it, detonation of ammunition, failure of the transmission or engine, death or injury of crew members) and anti-roof mines (hit the tank from above).

anti-personnel mines designed to destroy or disable enemy personnel. As a rule, these mines are unable to cause significant damage to enemy tanks, armored vehicles and vehicles. The maximum is to damage the car wheel, trim, glass, radiator. Mines were placed as part of anti-personnel or combined minefields, in groups and individual mines, they covered the approach to their positions and objects, the withdrawal of their units or blocked the paths of movement behind enemy lines, fettered his maneuver or forced him to move into a "fire bag", "protected" anti-tank mines, used as traps or means of undermining land mines, and so on.

Anti-vehicle mines were intended to destroy or disable enemy vehicles moving along transport routes (roads, railways, parking lots, runways and platforms, taxiways of airfields). They could also disable both unarmored and armored vehicles. These mines are not intended to destroy or injure personnel, although very often damage to vehicles leads to the simultaneous defeat of personnel.

The design features of anti-vehicle mines made it possible to use many of them as multi-purpose mines. As a rule, as objective mines, i.e. mines that explode after a certain predetermined period of time, or are exploded by the operator from the control panel via a command wire or radio link. Often, magnetic mines were used as such mines, which were fixed on an object (wagon, ship, tank) with the help of magnets.

Antiamphibious the mine was installed under water in the coastal zone of reservoirs in order to combat floating military equipment and landing ships. The destruction or injury of personnel for this type of mine is a side, secondary result of the operation of the mine.

Object mines were intended for destruction or incapacitation, damage to various fixed or moving enemy objects. The destruction or incapacitation of personnel was usually an incidental, but not an accidental task of object mines. And in a number of cases, the destruction or damage of an object was carried out with the aim of inflicting maximum losses on both personnel and combat and other equipment of the enemy. Mines were set only manually.

Signal mines are not designed to destroy or damage anyone or anything. Their task is to give out the presence of the enemy in a given place, to designate it, to draw attention to this place of their units. In terms of size, characteristics, installation methods, signal mines are close to anti-personnel mines.

The following mine signals are distinguished: sound (when triggered, they emit loud sounds that can be heard at a considerable distance); light (when triggered, they give bright flashes of light, or a bright light burns for a certain time, or the mine throws up lighting rockets (stars); smoke (when triggered, a cloud of colored smoke forms); combined (sound and light, sometimes smoke); radio signal ( transmit a signal about the detection to the control panel.The signal mines did not have explosives, the systems of self-destruction (self-neutralization) too.All signal mines, as a rule, are transferred to the combat position instantly after the removal of the safety blocking devices

Booby traps (surprises) were intended to disable or destroy enemy personnel, equipment, weapons, objects; creating an atmosphere of nervousness, fear in the enemy (minophobia); deprivation of his desire to use local or abandoned (trophy) household items, premises, means of communication, machines, devices, fortifications, captured weapons and ammunition and other objects; suppression of enemy work on the neutralization of mines of other types, clearance of terrain or objects. As a rule, booby traps were triggered as a result of an attempt by the enemy to use household items, premises, means of communication, machines, devices, fortifications, captured weapons and ammunition, and other objects; clear the area, objects, neutralize mines of other types. Such mines were divided into two main types: non-provoking (they work when trying to use an object, neutralize a mine of a different type, etc.); provocative (their behavior prompted the enemy to perform actions that would lead to a mine explosion. The types of target sensors are diverse and are determined by the design features of each specific sample of a booby trap. Basically, they can be divided into the following types: devices); unloading action (triggered when trying to lift an object, open a box, box, open a package); reacting to a change in the position of an object with a mine enclosed in it in space (tilt, move, rotate, lift, push); inertial action (triggered when change in the speed of movement of an object with a mine enclosed in it); photo-action (triggered by the action of light on a photosensitive element); seismic action (triggered by the vibration of a person, machine); acoustic action (triggered by a human voice, motor noise, sound of a shot); thermal actions (triggered by heat lovek, car motor, heating device); magnetic action (triggered when exposed to the magnetic fields of a machine, a metal that a person has); baric action (triggered by the pressure of the environment - air, water). The main installation method is manual. The use of booby traps was of a special, specific nature. The use of mines by their own troops was carefully disguised (including from their own military personnel), and their use by the enemy was advertised and exaggerated in every possible way. This is due, firstly, to great difficulties in determining the moment when this mining can begin (otherwise, losses may be incurred by their own troops); secondly, it is usually impossible to determine subsequently the effectiveness of mining and the degree of harm to the enemy; thirdly, a significant part of such mines inflicted defeat not on enemy soldiers, but on local residents, which in some cases is inappropriate; fourthly, most mines are adapted for use in populated areas, premises, and facilities. The mines used - surprises during the Second World War, were not able to have any noticeable effect on the course of the battle, on deterring the enemy or inflicting significant losses on him. Usually, when they were used after several explosions, the enemy quickly identified the types of surprise mines and avoided being hit by these mines in the future. At most, these mines can make it difficult to use local items, equipment, abandoned weapons, premises.

To the group special mines included those that cannot be more or less unambiguously attributed to any of the above. They are designed to harm the enemy in specific ways. The most common ones were: under-ice (designed to destroy the ice cover of reservoirs in order to exclude the crossing of enemy troops on ice); anti-mine (perform the protective task of conventional minefields, groups of mines, single mines. They are triggered when mine detector fields (magnetic, radio frequency) are exposed to the mine sensor); ); floatable (discharged into the river upstream and explode upon contact with a bridge, dam, lock, watercraft); self-propelled mines. In other respects, special mines are close to anti-tank or anti-personnel mines.

Mining- the process of laying mines in order to inflict losses on the enemy, make it difficult to maneuver, and carry out sabotage. Mines could be used in various ways: the installation of single mines, including booby traps, the creation of minefields. Minefields were usually arranged in such a way that the troops who laid them had the opportunity to completely survey the minefield and shoot through it, preventing the enemy from making passes. Minefields were used in both field and long-term fortification, often in combination with wire and other barriers. They were characterized by the size along the front and in depth, the number of rows of mines, the distance between the rows and mines in the rows, the consumption of mines per 1 km, the probability of hitting manpower and military equipment.

Groups of mines (individual mines) were placed on roads, detours, fords, gats, mountain paths, in hollows, cuts and in settlements. Minefields could consist only of anti-personnel or anti-tank mines, or they could be mixed. In anti-tank minefields, mines were placed in three to four rows with a distance between rows of 20-40 m and between mines in a row of 4-5.5 m for anti-track and 9-12 m for anti-bottom. Their consumption per 1 km of the minefield, respectively, was 750-1000 and 300-400 pieces. Anti-personnel minefields were established from high-explosive and fragmentation mines. They could be installed in front of anti-tank minefields, in front of non-explosive obstacles or in combination with them, and in areas of terrain inaccessible to mechanized troops. Along the front, minefields ranged from several tens to hundreds of meters, and in depth - 10-15 meters or more. Minefields could consist of 2-4 or more rows with a distance between rows of more than 5 m, and between mines in a row for high-explosive mines - at least 1 m. Consumption per 1 km of a minefield - 2-3 thousand minutes. Single mines were often used by various kinds of sabotage groups and partisans, and were installed in the settlements abandoned by the retreating troops. During the war, mining of railways, objects (buildings) and mining of areas (minefields) were used.

Under demining understood the reverse process of mining. To detect mines, they mainly used a mine detector - a device that emits waves of a certain spectrum, and gives a signal to a sapper if the nature of the reflected waves changes. To make it difficult to detect mines during World War II, mines with a glass or wooden case were used. In this regard, specially trained animals with a keen sense of smell - service dogs and even rats - were used to detect them.

Most mines consisted of three main elements - an explosive charge, a fuse and a body. In mines for various purposes, mainly blasting substances that are sensitive to detonation were used. These included products of organic chemistry: TNT, tetryl, hexogen, heating elements, and others, as well as cheap ammonium nitrate explosives. Pyrotechnic compositions were used in signal and incendiary mines. According to the principle of operation, fuses are divided into contact, requiring direct contact with the object, and non-contact, according to the timing of operation - instant and delayed action. The fuse served to directly initiate the detonation of the charge and could be part of the fuse or inserted into the mine separately - when it was installed.

Mine-explosive injuries are usually combined, caused by several factors at once, but two are distinguished as the main ones - fragmentation and high-explosive damage. High-explosive action consists in hitting the target with hot high-speed explosion products - at close distances, and then with excess pressure in the front and the velocity head of the shock wave. A fragment weighing only 0.13-0.15 grams was considered lethal at its speed of 1,150 - 1,250 m / s.

Considering the development and production of engineering ammunition, in particular mines, by country, the following can be noted. Mine weapons developed mainly in Germany, Finland and the USSR. It should be noted the high degree of safety of mines and fuses in Germany and the USSR, although their design was often primitive. At the same time, British, American, Italian and French mines and fuses, with the high manufacturability of the structures, required extremely careful handling and qualified training of sappers. The safety of miners when handling mines in Japan was not taken into account at all.

The range of British mine weapons in the field of anti-tank and anti-personnel mines is very small. At the same time, the variety of perfect, exquisite fuses is quite large, which indicates the focus of the British army on mine and sabotage activities. The British began mass production of mines only in 1940. In total, 19.6 million mines were manufactured during the war years, incl. 15.8 million anti-tank mines and 3.7 million anti-personnel mines.

Germany was distinguished by the production of sufficiently advanced and technological mines, explosive charges and fuses. The range of mines produced was quite large and multifunctional. At the same time, their production took into account both the availability of materials and labor, and their functionality. In Germany, during the war years, 76.6 million mines of various types were fired. The literacy of the use of mines by the German troops should also be noted.

In the USSR, when producing mines, the main attention was paid to simplicity and reliability, combined with cheapness and mass production. According to the nomenclature of mines, the USSR surpassed even Germany. A separate direction in the development of mines in the USSR was a mini sabotage direction: anti-vehicle, object and radio-controlled. During the war years, the USSR produced 66.5 million mines of all types, including: 24.8 million anti-tank and 40.4 million anti-tank.

The United States did not pay due attention to mine weapons and only with the outbreak of war began to develop them. In France, mines were practically not produced. In Japan, in the absence of mass production of engineering mines, components of sabotage explosives, incendiaries and booby traps were produced in sufficient quantities to commit sabotage behind enemy lines.

According to expert estimates, the total number of mines fired by all countries during the war exceeded 200 million mines.

About explosives (BB)

Explosion- this is a process of very rapid transformation of an explosive into a large amount of highly compressed and heated gases, which, expanding, produce mechanical work (destruction, movement, crushing, ejection).

Explosive- chemical compounds or mixtures of such compounds that, under the influence of certain external influences, are capable of rapid, self-developing chemical transformation into a large number of gases.

Simply put, an explosion is akin to the combustion of ordinary combustible substances (coal, firewood), but differs from simple combustion in that this process occurs very quickly, in thousandths and ten thousandths of a second. Hence, according to the rate of transformation, the explosion is divided into two types - combustion and detonation.

In an explosive transformation such as combustion, the transfer of energy from one layer of matter to another occurs through heat conduction. A combustion type explosion is characteristic of gunpowder. The process of gas formation is rather slow. Due to this, during the explosion of gunpowder in a confined space (cartridge case, projectile), the bullet, projectile is ejected from the barrel, but the cartridge case, the weapon chamber is not destroyed.

In an explosion of the same type of detonation, the process of energy transfer is caused by the passage of a shock wave through the explosive at supersonic speed (6-7 thousand meters per second). In this case, gases are formed very quickly, the pressure increases instantly to very large values. Simply put, gases don't have time to take the path of least resistance and, in an effort to expand, destroy everything in their path. This type of explosion is characteristic of TNT, RDX, ammonite, and other substances.

In order for the explosion process to begin (further it develops spontaneously), an external influence is necessary, it is required to apply a certain amount of energy to the explosive. External influences are divided into the following types:
1.Mechanical (impact, prick, friction).
2. Thermal (spark, flame, heating)
3. Chemical (chemical reaction of the interaction of any substance with explosives)
4. Detonation (an explosion next to an explosive of another explosive).

Different explosives react differently to external influences. Some of them explode on any impact, others have selective sensitivity. For example, black smoke powder responds well to thermal effects, very poorly to mechanical effects, and practically does not respond to chemical effects. TNT, on the other hand, mainly reacts only to the detonation effect. Capsule compositions (explosive mercury) react to almost any external influence. There are explosives that explode without any visible external influence at all, but the practical use of such explosives is generally impossible.

Depending on the type of explosion and sensitivity to external influences, all explosives are divided into three main groups:
1. Initiating explosives.
2. Brizant explosives.
3. Throwing explosives.

Initiating explosives. They are highly sensitive to external influences. Other characteristics (see below) are usually low. But they have a valuable property - their explosion (detonation) has a detonation effect on blasting and propelling explosives, which are usually not sensitive to other types of external influence at all or have unsatisfactory sensitivity. Therefore, initiating substances are used only to excite the explosion of blasting or propelling explosives. To ensure the safety of the use of initiating explosives, they are packed in protective devices (primer, primer sleeve, primer - detonator, electric detonator, fuse). Typical representatives of initiating explosives: mercury fulminate, lead azide, teneres (TNRS).

Brizantnye VV. This, in fact, is what they say and write about. They are equipped with shells, mines, bombs, rockets, land mines; they blow up bridges, cars, businessmen….
Blasting explosives are divided into three groups according to their explosive characteristics:
*** increased power (representatives - hexogen, heating element, tetryl);
** normal power (representatives - TNT, melinite, plastite);
* reduced power (representatives - ammonium nitrate and its mixtures).

High power explosives are somewhat more sensitive to external influences and therefore they are more often used in a mixture with phlegmatizers (substances that reduce the sensitivity of explosives) or in a mixture with explosives of normal power to increase the power of the latter. Sometimes explosives of increased power are used as intermediate detonators.

Throwing explosives. These are various gunpowders - black smoky, smokeless pyroxylin and nitroglycerin. They also include various pyrotechnic mixtures for fireworks, signal and lighting rockets, lighting projectiles, mines, bombs

All explosives are characterized by a number of data, depending on the values ​​of which the question of the use of a given substance for solving certain problems is decided. The most significant of them are:
1. Sensitivity to external influences.
2. Energy (heat) of explosive transformation.
3. Velocity of detonation.
4. Brisance.
5. Explosiveness.
6. Chemical resistance.
7. Duration and conditions of the working state.
8.Normal state of aggregation.
9. Density.

The properties of explosives can be described quite fully using all nine characteristics. However, in order to understand in general what is usually called power or strength, one can limit oneself to two characteristics: "Brizance" and "High explosiveness".

Brisance- this is the ability of explosives to crush, destroy objects in contact with it (metal, rocks, etc.). The magnitude of brisance indicates how quickly gases are formed during an explosion. The higher the brisance of one or another explosive, the more suitable it is for equipping shells, mines, and air bombs. Such an explosive during an explosion will better crush the body of the projectile, give the fragments the highest speed, and create a stronger shock wave. A characteristic is directly related to brisance - the detonation velocity, i.e., how quickly the explosion process propagates through the explosive substance. Brisance is measured in millimeters (mm). This is a standard unit. There is no need to describe the technique for measuring brisance.

explosiveness- in other words, the performance of explosives, the ability to destroy and throw out of the explosion area, surrounding materials (soil, concrete, brick, etc.). This characteristic is determined by the amount of gases formed during the explosion. The more gases are formed, the more work this explosive can do. Explosiveness is measured in cubic centimeters (cc). This is also a rather arbitrary value.

From this it becomes quite clear that different explosives are suitable for different purposes. For example, for blasting in the ground (in a mine, during the construction of pits, the destruction of ice jams, etc.), an explosive with the highest explosiveness is more suitable, and any brisance is suitable. On the contrary, high brisance is primarily valuable for loading shells, and high explosive is not so important.

Below are these two characteristics of several types of explosives:

From this table it can be seen that ammonite is better suited for digging a pit in the ground, and plastic is better for equipping shells.

However, this is a highly simplified and not entirely correct approach to understanding the power of explosives. I allowed this simplification in order to explain the properties of explosives as simply as possible. In fact, all nine characteristics are closely related to each other, depend on each other, and a change in one of them entails a change in all the others.

There is a simpler, and most importantly, a real way to compare the powers of various explosives. It's called "TNT equivalent". Its essence lies in the fact that the power of TNT is conditionally taken as a unit (approximately the same as the power of one horse was once taken as a unit of machine power). And all other explosives (including nuclear explosives) are compared with TNT. Simply put, how much TNT would have to be taken to produce the same explosive work as a given amount of this explosive. In order not to tire the reader with long calculations and boring formulas, I’ll say it easier: 100g. RDX give the same result as 125 gr. TNT, and 75 gr. TNT will replace 100g. ammonite. It will be even easier to say that high-power explosives are 25 percent stronger than TNT, and low-power explosives are 20-30% weaker than TNT.

Explosives

Ammonium nitrate explosives

Ammonium nitrate explosives include a large group of explosives created on the basis of ammonium nitrate. All of them belong to high explosives of reduced power. That is, when compared with TNT, it is considered. that all of them are 25 percent weaker than TNT. However, this is not entirely true. In terms of brisance, ammonium nitrate explosives, as a rule, are not much inferior to TNT, and in terms of explosiveness they exceed TNT, and some of them are very significant. Ammonium nitrate explosives are more preferable when undermining soils, because due to their high explosiveness they are able to throw more soil out of the explosion area. However, when working in rocky soils, TNT is still preferable, because due to the greater brisance, it crushes rocks better.

Ammonium nitrate explosives are used to a greater extent in the national economy and to a lesser extent in military affairs. The reasons for this use are the significantly lower cost of ammonium nitrate explosives, their significantly lower reliability in use. First of all, this is a significant hygroscopicity of amm. Explosives, due to which, when moistened with more than 3%, such explosives completely lose their ability to explode. These explosives are subject to the phenomenon of caking, due to which they also completely or partially lose their explosiveness. The continuous recrystallization processes in these explosives lead to an increase in the volume occupied by them, which can lead to the destruction of the packaging or ammunition shells.